Tea, in preperation too!!!

Fri, 23 Oct 2009 01:41:09 +0100

Tea
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For other uses, see Tea (disambiguation).

Green Tea leaves in a Chinese gaiwan.

A tea bush.

Plantation workers picking tea in Tanzania.

Tea plant (Camellia sinensis) from Köhler's Medicinal Plants.

Loose dried tea leaves

Tea is the agricultural product of the leaves, leaf buds, and internodes of the Camellia sinensis plant, prepared and cured by various methods. "Tea" also refers to the aromatic beverage prepared from the cured leaves by combination with hot or boiling water,^[1] and is the common name for the Camellia sinensis plant itself.

After water, tea is the most widely-consumed beverage in the world.^[2] It has a cooling, slightly bitter, astringent flavour which many enjoy.^[3]

The four types of tea most commonly found on the market are black tea, oolong tea, green tea and white tea,^[4] all of which can be made from the same bushes, processed differently, and in the case of fine white tea grown differently. Pu-erh tea, a post-fermented tea, is also often classified as amongst the most popular types of tea.^[5]

The term "herbal tea" usually refers to an infusion or tisane of leaves, flowers, fruit, herbs or other plant material that contains no Camellia sinensis.^[6] The term "red tea" either refers to an infusion made from the South African rooibos plant, also containing no Camellia sinensis, or, in Chinese, Korean, Japanese and other East Asian languages, refers to black tea.

[hide]

1 Traditional Chinese Tea Cultivation and Technologies
2 Processing and classification
3 Blending and additives
4 Content
5 Origin and history
6 Health effects
7 Etymology and cognates in other languages
- 7.1 The derivatives from tê
- 7.2 Derivatives from cha or chai
8 Tea culture
9 Preparation
10 Economics of tea
11 Statistics
- 11.1 Production
  - 11.1.1 Tea production certification
- 11.2 Trade
12 Packaging
13 Storage
14 See also
15 Notes
16 References
17 External links

[edit] Traditional Chinese Tea Cultivation and Technologies

Camellia sinensis is an evergreen plant that grows mainly in tropical and sub-tropical climates. Nevertheless, some varieties can also tolerate marine climates and are cultivated as far north as Cornwall on the UK mainland^[7] and Seattle in the United States.

Camellia Sinensis, the tea plant

In addition to a zone 8 climate or warmer, tea plants require at least 50 inches of rainfall a year and prefer acidic soils.^[8] Traditional Chinese Tea Cultivation and Studies believes that high-quality tea plants are cultivated at elevations of up to 1500 meters (5,000 ft): at these heights, the plants grow more slowly and acquire a better flavour.^[9]

Only the top 1-2 inches of the mature plant are picked. These buds and leaves are called flushes.^[10] A plant will grow a new flush every seven to ten days during the growing season.

A tea plant will grow into a tree if left undisturbed, but cultivated plants are pruned to waist height for ease of plucking.^[11]

Two principal varieties are used: the small-leaved China plant (C. sinensis sinensis), used for most Chinese, Formosan and Japanese teas (but not Pu-erh); and the large-leaved Assam plant (C. sinensis assamica), used in most Indian and other teas (but not Darjeeling). Within these botanical varieties, there are many strains and modern Indian clonal varieties. Leaf size is the chief criterion for the classification of tea plants:^[12] tea is classified into (1) Assam type, characterized by the largest leaves; (2) China type, characterized by the smallest leaves; and (3) Cambod, characterized by leaves of intermediate size.^[12]

Tricia Thornton 10/20/09 S.S. S.S. essay/inventor Christopher Sholes

The first type writer was made by Christopher Sholes and his two friends Carlos Glidden and Samuel Soulé. This invention was the first invention that could type faster then someone writing by hand. This was very good for people who needed to write a lot.

Christopher Sholes was born February 14,1819 in Mooresburg Pennsylvania. Christopher and his parents moved when he was young to Danville, Pennsylvania. Christopher went to school at Henderson’s school till he was 14 years old. He then worked 4 years as an apprentice in Danville Intelligencer (printing company). He went onto work as a inventor, publisher, senator (2 terms) and editor.

Christopher Sholes ,Carlos Glidden and Samuel Soulé first

 typewriter consisted of letter in capitols only, no shift bar and no number one. They thought people could use the letter “L” as a one.  The typewriter often jammed since the letter’s were in alphabetical order.  The frequently used letters that were near each other would jam. Sholes’s bought out his two friends shares in the typewriter and spend 5 years trying to fix his design. He then came up with the QWERTY system. The QWERTY was the ordering of the first 6 letters in the 3rd row of his typewriter. This letter system is still the same system used today. Christopher Sholes invented the system to stop people from jamming the type writer. He put the most used keys on the typewriter far away from each other so the typewriter wouldn’t jam.

The long-term benefits of Christopher Sholes invention was that it would spark a another industry. Typewriters became extremely helpful for teaching and writing. People could write faster on the typewriters then writing by hand. Today typewriters look a lot smaller, lighter, have more keys and are easier to use. This invention still does the same thing as it did when it was first invented. This invention is still used today but has been greatly replaced by the computer.

Christopher Sholes was an inventor that made life easier for us in so many ways. The typewriter helped students write essays faster and neater, workers write reports more efficiently, medical notes became clearer and less mistake were made. The computer was inspired by the typewriter. Computers are such a helpful resource for everyone. Inventors make inventions to make life easier for people and Christopher Sholes has definitely done that for us.

[edit] Processing and classification

Main article: Tea processing

A tea's type is determined by the processing which it undergoes. Leaves of Camellia sinensis soon begin to wilt and oxidize if not dried quickly after picking. The leaves turn progressively darker as their chlorophyll breaks down and tannins are released. This process, enzymatic oxidation, is called fermentation in the tea industry, although it is not a true fermentation: it is not caused by micro-organisms, and is not an anaerobic process. The next step in processing is to stop the oxidation process at a predetermined stage by heating, which deactivates the enzymes responsible. With black tea this is done simultaneously with drying.

Without careful moisture and temperature control during manufacture and packaging, the tea will grow fungi. The fungus causes real fermentation that will contaminate the tea with toxic and sometimes carcinogenic substances, as well as off-flavors, rendering the tea unfit for consumption.

Tea leaf processing methods (Simplified)

Tea is traditionally classified based on the techniques with which it is produced and processed.^[13]

White tea: Unwilted and unoxidized
Yellow tea: Unwilted and unoxidized but allowed to yellow
Green tea: Wilted and unoxidized
Oolong: Wilted, bruised, and partially oxidized
Black tea: Wilted, sometimes crushed, and fully oxidized
Post-fermented tea: Green Tea that has been allowed to ferment/compost

[edit] Blending and additives

Tea weighing station north of Batumi, Russian Empire before 1915

Main article: Tea blending and additives

Almost all teas in bags and most other teas sold in the West are blends. Blending may occur in the tea-planting area (as in the case of Assam), or teas from many areas may be blended. The aim is to obtain better taste, higher price, or both, as a more expensive, better-tasting tea may cover the inferior taste of cheaper varieties.

Some teas are not pure varieties, but have been enhanced through additives or special processing. Tea is highly receptive to inclusion of various aromas; this may cause problems in processing, transportation and storage, but also allows for the design of an almost endless range of scented and flavored variants, such as vanilla, caramel, and many others.

[edit] Content

Tea contains catechins, a type of antioxidant. In a freshly-picked tea leaf, catechins can compose up to 30% of the dry weight. Catechins are highest in concentration in white and green teas, while black tea has substantially fewer due to its oxidative preparation.^[14]^[15] Research by the U.S. Department of Agriculture has suggested that levels of antioxidants in green and black tea do not differ greatly, with green tea having an Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) of 1253 and black tea an ORAC of 1128 (measured in μmolTE/100g).^[16] Tea also contains theanine and the stimulant caffeine at about 3% of its dry weight, translating to between 30 mg and 90 mg per 8 oz (250 ml) cup depending on type, brand^[17] and brewing method.^[18] Tea also contains small amounts of theobromine and theophylline,^[19] as well as fluoride^{[citation needed]}, with certain types of brick tea made from old leaves and stems having the highest levels.^[20]

Dry tea has more caffeine by weight than coffee; nevertheless, more dried coffee is used than dry tea in preparing the beverage,^[21] which mean that a cup of brewed tea contains significantly less caffeine than a cup of coffee of the same size.

Tea has no carbohydrates, fat, or protein.

[edit] Origin and history

According to Mondal (2007, p. 519): "Camellia sinensis originated in southeast Asia, specifically around the intersection of latitude 29°N and longitude 98°E, the point of confluence of the lands of northeast India, north Burma, southwest China and Tibet. The plant was introduced to more than 52 countries, from this ‘centre of origin’."

Based on morphological differences between the Assamese and Chinese varieties, botanists have long asserted a dual botanical origin for tea; however, statistical cluster analysis, the same chromosome number (2n=30), easy hybridization, and various types of intermediate hybrids and spontaneous polyploids all appear to demonstrate a single place of origin for Camellia sinensis — the area including the northern part of Burma, and Yunnan and Sichuan provinces of China.^[22] According to this theory, tea plants in southeast Asia may have been the products of the 19th Century and 20th Century hybridizing experiments.^{[citation needed]}

Yunnan Province has also been identified as "the birthplace of tea...the first area where humans figured out that eating tea leaves or brewing a cup could be pleasant".^[23] Fengqing County in the Lincang City Prefecture of Yunnan Province is said to be home to the world's oldest cultivated tea tree, some 3,200 years old.^[24]

[edit] Origin myths

In one popular Chinese legend, Shennong, the legendary Emperor of China and inventor of agriculture and Chinese medicine was drinking a bowl of boiling water some time around 2737 BC when a few leaves were blown from a nearby tree into his water, changing the color. The emperor took a sip of the brew and was pleasantly surprised by its flavor and restorative properties. A variant of the legend tells that the emperor tested the medical properties of various herbs on himself, some of them poisonous, and found tea to work as an antidote.^[25] Shennong is also mentioned in Lu Yu's famous early work on the subject, Cha Jing.^[26] A similar Chinese legend goes that the god of agriculture would chew the leaves, stems, and roots of various plants to discover medicinal herbs. If he consumed a poisonous plant, he would chew tea leaves to counteract the poison.^[27]

A rather gruesome legend dates back to the Tang Dynasty. In the legend, Bodhidharma, the founder of Chan Buddhism, accidentally fell asleep after meditating in front of a wall for nine years. He woke up in such disgust at his weakness that he cut off his own eyelids. They fell to the ground and took root, growing into tea bushes.^[28] Sometimes, another version of the story is told with Gautama Buddha in place of Bodhidharma.^[29]

Whether or not these legends have any basis in fact, tea has played a significant role in Asian culture for centuries as a staple beverage, a curative, and a status symbol. It is not surprising, therefore, that theories of its origin are often religious or royal in nature.

A Ming Dynasty painting by artist Wen Zhengming illustrating scholars greeting in a tea ceremony

Lu Yu's statue in Xi'an

Illustration of the legend of monkeys harvesting tea.

[edit] China

Main article: History of tea in China

The Chinese have consumed tea for thousands of years. People of the Han Dynasty used tea as medicine (though the first use of tea as a stimulant is unknown). China is considered to have the earliest records of tea consumption,^[30]^[31] with records dating back to the 10th century BC.^[30]

Laozi (ca. 600-517 BC), the classical Chinese philosopher, described tea as "the froth of the liquid jade" and named it an indispensable ingredient to the elixir of life. Legend has it that master Lao was saddened by society's moral decay and, sensing that the end of the dynasty was near, he journeyed westward to the unsettled territories, never to be seen again. While passing along the nation's border, he encountered and was offered tea by a customs inspector named Yin Hsi. Yin Hsi encouraged him to compile his teachings into a single book so that future generations might benefit from his wisdom. This then became known as the Dao De Jing, a collection of Laozi's sayings.

In 59 BC, Wang Bao wrote the first known book with instructions on buying and preparing tea.

In 220 , famed physician and surgeon Hua Tuo wrote Shin Lun, in which he describes tea's ability to improve mental functions.

During the Sui Dynasty (589-618 AD) tea was introduced to Japan by Buddhist monks.

The Tang Dynasty writer Lu Yu's (simplified Chinese: 陆羽; traditional Chinese: 陸羽; pinyin: lùyǔ) Cha Jing (The Classic of Tea) (simplified Chinese: 茶经; traditional Chinese: 茶經; pinyin: chá jīng) is an early work on the subject. (See also Tea Classics) According to Cha Jing tea drinking was widespread. The book describes how tea plants were grown, the leaves processed, and tea prepared as a beverage. It also describes how tea was evaluated. The book also discusses where the best tea leaves were produced. Teas produced in this period were mainly tea bricks which were often used as currency, especially further from the center of the empire where coins lost their value.

During the Song Dynasty (960-1279), production and preparation of all tea changed. The tea of Song included many loose-leaf styles (to preserve the delicate character favored by court society), but a new powdered form of tea emerged. Steaming tea leaves was the primary process used for centuries in the preparation of tea. After the transition from compressed tea to the powdered form, the production of tea for trade and distribution changed once again. The Chinese learned to process tea in a different way in the mid-13th century. Tea leaves were roasted and then crumbled rather than steamed. This is the origin of today's loose teas and the practice of brewed tea.

Tea production in China, historically, was a laborious process, conducted in distant and often poorly accessible regions. This led to the rise of many apocryphal stories and legends surrounding the harvesting process. For example, one story that has been told for many years is that of a village where monkeys pick tea. According to this legend, the villagers stand below the monkeys and taunt them. The monkeys, in turn, become angry, and grab handfuls of tea leaves and throw them at the villagers.^[32] There are products sold today that claim to be harvested in this manner, but no reliable commentators have observed this firsthand, and most doubt that it happened at all.^[33] For many hundreds of years the commercially-used tea tree has been, in shape, more of a bush than a tree.^[34] "Monkey picked tea" is more likely a name of certain varieties than a description of how it was obtained.^[35]

In 1391, the Ming court issued a decree that only loose tea would be accepted as a "tribute." As a result, loose tea production increased and processing techniques advanced. Soon, most tea was distributed in full-leaf, loose form and steeped in earthenware vessels.

[edit] Japan

Ancient Tea Urns used by merchants to store tea.

Japanese tea ceremony

Main article: History of tea in Japan

Tea use spread to Japan about the sixth century.^[36] Tea became a drink of the religious classes in Japan when Japanese priests and envoys, sent to China to learn about its culture, brought tea to Japan. Ancient recordings indicate the first batch of tea seeds were brought by a priest named Saichō (最澄^?, 767-822) in 805 and then by another named Kūkai (空海^?, 774-835) in 806. It became a drink of the royal classes when Emperor Saga (嵯峨天皇^?), the Japanese emperor, encouraged the growth of tea plants. Seeds were imported from China, and cultivation in Japan began.

In 1191, the famous Zen priest Eisai (栄西^?, 1141-1215) brought back tea seeds to Kyoto. Some of the tea seeds were given to the priest Myoe Shonin, and became the basis for Uji tea. The oldest tea specialty book in Japan, Kissa Yōjōki (喫茶養生記^?, How to Stay Healthy by Drinking Tea), was written by Eisai. The two-volume book was written in 1211 after his second and last visit to China. The first sentence states, “Tea is the ultimate mental and medical remedy and has the ability to make one’s life more full and complete." Eisai was also instrumental in introducing tea consumption to the warrior class, which rose to political prominence after the Heian Period.

Green tea became a staple among cultured people in Japan—a brew for the gentry and the Buddhist priesthood alike. Production grew and tea became increasingly accessible, though still a privilege enjoyed mostly by the upper classes. The tea ceremony of Japan was introduced from China in the 15th century by Buddhists as a semi-religious social custom. The modern tea ceremony developed over several centuries by Zen Buddhist monks under the original guidance of the monk Sen no Rikyū (千利休^?, 1522-1591). In fact, both the beverage and the ceremony surrounding it played a prominent role in feudal diplomacy.

In 1738, Soen Nagatani developed Japanese sencha (煎茶^?), literally roasted tea, which is an unfermented form of green tea. It is the most popular form of tea in Japan today. In 1835, Kahei Yamamoto developed gyokuro (玉露^?), literally jewel dew, by shading tea trees during the weeks leading up to harvesting. At the end of the Meiji period (1868-1912), machine manufacturing of green tea was introduced and began replacing handmade tea.

[edit] Korea

See also: Korean tea ceremony and Korean tea

Darye, Korean tea ceremony

The first historical record documenting the offering of tea to an ancestral god describes a rite in the year 661 in which a tea offering was made to the spirit of King Suro, the founder of the Geumgwan Gaya Kingdom (42-562). Records from the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392) show that tea offerings were made in Buddhist temples to the spirits of revered monks.

During the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), the royal Yi family and the aristocracy used tea for simple rites. The "Day Tea Rite" was a common daytime ceremony, whereas the "Special Tea Rite" was reserved for specific occasions. Toward the end of the Joseon Dynasty, commoners joined the trend and used tea for ancestral rites, following the Chinese example based on Zhu Xi's text formalities of Family.

Stoneware was common, ceramic more frequent, mostly made in provincial kilns, with porcelain rare, imperial porcelain with dragons the rarest. The earliest kinds of tea used in tea ceremonies were heavily pressed cakes of black tea, the equivalent of aged pu-erh tea still popular in China. However, importation of tea plants by Buddhist monks brought a more delicate series of teas into Korea, and the tea ceremony. Green tea, "chaksol" or "chugno," is most often served. However other teas such as "Byeoksoryung" Chunhachoon, Woojeon, Jakseol, Jookro, Okcheon, as well as native chrysanthemum tea, persimmon leaf tea, or mugwort tea may be served at different times of the year.

[edit] Taiwan

Taiwan is famous for the making of Oolong tea and green tea, as well as many western-styled teas. Bubble Tea or "Zhen Zhu Nai Cha" is black tea mixed with sweetened condensed milk and tapioca. Since the island was known to Westerners for many centuries as Formosa — short for the Portuguese Ilha Formosa, or "beautiful island" — tea grown in Taiwan is often identified by that name.

[edit] Thailand

Thai tea or "cha-yen" (Thai: ชาเย็น) in Thailand, is a drink made from strongly-brewed black tea ("red tea" in East Asia). Other ingredients may include added orange blossom water, star anise, crushed tamarind seed or red and yellow food coloring, and sometimes other spices as well. This tea is sweetened with sugar and condensed milk.

Usually, Thai people drink Thai hot tea in the morning, frequently with Yau ja gwai or Pa-tong-ko (Thai: ปาท่องโก๋) as it is called by most Thais.

- *Thai hot tea (Thai: ชาร้อน, cha-ron) Thai tea served hot.

- *Dark Thai hot tea (Thai: ชาดำร้อน, cha-dam-ron) Thai tea served hot with no milk content, sweetened with sugar only.

[edit] Vietnam

Vietnamese green tea

Type:

Green

Other names:

Origin:

Vietnam

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This article is about alcoholic liquids. For the colors used in a coat of arms, see tincture (heraldry).

A tincture prepared from white willow bark and ethanol

In medicine, a tincture is an alcoholic extract (e.g. of leaves or other plant material) or solution of a non-volatile substance; (e.g. of iodine, mercurochrome). To qualify as a tincture, the alcoholic extract is to have an ethanol percentage of at least 40-60% (sometimes a 90% percent pure liquid is even achieved). ^[1] Solutions of volatile substances were called spirits, although that name was also given to several other materials obtained by distillation, even when they did not include alcohol. In chemistry, a tincture is a solution that has alcohol as the solvent.

[hide]

1 General method of preparation
2 Examples of tinctures
3 See also
4 References
5 External links

[edit] General method of preparation

A general method of preparation on how tinctures can be prepared is the following:^[2]

Herbs are put in a jar and a spirit of 40°C^{[citation needed]} pure ethanol is added
The jar is left to stand for 2–3 weeks, shaken occasionally.

To make a more precise tincture, more extensive measuring can be done by combining 1 part herbs with a water-ethanol mixture of 2-10 parts, depending on the herb itself. With most tinctures, however, 1 part water at 5 parts ethanol is used.^[1]

[edit] Examples of tinctures

Some examples that were formerly common in medicine^[3] include:

Tincture of Cannabis sativa
Tincture of Benzoin
Tincture of cantharides
Tincture of ferric citrochloride (a chelate of citric acid and Iron(III) chloride)
Tincture of green soap (which also contains lavender)
Tincture of guaiac
Tincture of iodine
Tincture of opium (laudanum)
Camphorated opium tincture (paregoric)
Tincture of Pennyroyal

Examples of spirits include:

Spirit of ammonia (also called spirit of hartshorn)
Spirit of box, or ethanol, which was derived from the destructive distillation of boxwood
Spirit of camphor
Spirit of ether, a solution of diethyl ether in alcohol
"Spirit of Mindererus", ammonium acetate in alcohol
"Spirit of nitre" is not a spirit in this sense, but an old name for nitric acid (but "sweet spirit of nitre" was ethyl nitrite)
Similarly "spirit(s) of salt" actually meant hydrochloric acid. The concentrated, fuming, 35% acid is still sold under this name in the UK, for use as a drain-cleaning fluid.
"Spirit of vinegar" was glacial acetic acid and
"Spirit of vitriol" was sulfuric acid
"Spirit of wine" or "spirits of wine" is an old name for alcohol (especially food grade alcohol derived from the distillation of wine)
"Spirit of wood" means methanol, often derived from the destructive distillation of wood

[edit] See also

Nalewka - a traditional Polish category of alcoholic tincture.
infusion - a water or oil based extract with similar historical uses to a tincture.
Elixir - A pharmaceutical preparation containing an active ingredient that is dissolved in a solution containing some percentage of ethyl alcohol.
Extract

[edit] References

^ ^a ^b Groot Handboek Geneeskrachtige Planten by Geert Verhelst
^ How to make a tincture
^ The Pharmacopoeia of the United States, 1850 ed.

[edit] External links

How to make a tincture

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tincture"

Categories: Dosage forms

Vitamins...

Wed, 21 Oct 2009 23:08:34 +0100

Vitamin

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Vitamins)

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This article is about the organic compound. For the nutritional supplement preparation, see multivitamin.

Fruits and vegetables are often a good source of vitamins.

A vitamin is an organic compound required as a nutrient in tiny amounts by an organism.^[1] The term 'vitamin' first became popular in the early 1800's as a contraction of the words 'vital' and 'mineral', though the actual meaning of the word has developed somewhat since that time^[2]. A compound is called a vitamin when it cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from the diet. Thus, the term is conditional both on the circumstances and the particular organism. For example, ascorbic acid functions as vitamin C for some animals but not others, and vitamins D and K are required in the human diet only in certain circumstances.^[3] The term vitamin does not include other essential nutrients such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids, nor does it encompass the large number of other nutrients that promote health but are otherwise required less often.^[4]

Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, not their structure. Thus, each "vitamin" may refer to several vitamer compounds that all show the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin. Such a set of chemicals are grouped under an alphabetized vitamin "generic descriptor" title, such as "vitamin A", which includes the compounds retinal, retinol, and many carotenoids.^[5] Vitamers are often inter-converted in the body.

Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions, including function as hormones (e.g. vitamin D), antioxidants (e.g. vitamin E), and mediators of cell signaling and regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation (e.g. vitamin A).^[6] The largest number of vitamins (e.g. B complex vitamins) function as precursors for enzyme cofactor bio-molecules (coenzymes), that help act as catalysts and substrates in metabolism. When acting as part of a catalyst, vitamins are bound to enzymes and are called prosthetic groups. For example, biotin is part of enzymes involved in making fatty acids. Vitamins also act as coenzymes to carry chemical groups between enzymes. For example, folic acid carries various forms of carbon group – methyl, formyl and methylene - in the cell. Although these roles in assisting enzyme reactions are vitamins' best-known function, the other vitamin functions are equally important.^[7]

Until the 1900s, vitamins were obtained solely through food intake, and changes in diet (which, for example, could occur during a particular growing season) can alter the types and amounts of vitamins ingested. Vitamins have been produced as commodity chemicals and made widely available as inexpensive pills for several decades,^[8] allowing supplementation of the dietary intake.

[hide]

1 History
2 In humans
- 2.1 List of vitamins
3 In nutrition and diseases
- 3.1 Deficiencies
- 3.2 Side effects and overdose
4 Supplements
- 4.1 Governmental regulation of vitamin supplements
5 Names in current and previous nomenclatures
6 See also
7 References
8 External links

[edit] History

The discovery of vitamins and their sources
Year of discovery	Vitamin	Source
1909	Vitamin A (Retinol)	Cod liver oil
1912	Vitamin B₁ (Thiamine)	Rice bran
1912	Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)	Lemons
1918	Vitamin D (Calciferol)	Cod liver oil
1920	Vitamin B₂ (Riboflavin)	Eggs
1922	Vitamin E (Tocopherol)	Wheat germ oil, Cosmetics and Liver
1926	Vitamin B₁₂ (Cyanocobalamin)	Liver
1929	Vitamin K (Phylloquinone)	Alfalfa
1931	Vitamin B₅ (Pantothenic acid)	Liver
1931	Vitamin B₇ (Biotin)	Liver
1934	Vitamin B₆ (Pyridoxine)	Rice bran
1936	Vitamin B₃ (Niacin)	Liver
1941	Vitamin B₉ (Folic acid)	Liver

The value of eating a certain food to maintain health was recognized long before vitamins were identified. The ancient Egyptians knew that feeding liver to a patient would help cure night blindness, an illness now known to be caused by a vitamin A deficiency.^[9] The advancement of ocean voyage during the Renaissance resulted in prolonged periods without access to fresh fruits and vegetables, and made illnesses from vitamin deficiency common among ships' crews.^[10]

In 1749, the Scottish surgeon James Lind discovered that citrus foods helped prevent scurvy, a particularly deadly disease in which collagen is not properly formed, causing poor wound healing, bleeding of the gums, severe pain, and death.^[9] In 1753, Lind published his Treatise on the Scurvy, which recommended using lemons and limes to avoid scurvy, which was adopted by the British Royal Navy. This led to the nickname Limey for sailors of that organization. Lind's discovery, however, was not widely accepted by individuals in the Royal Navy's Arctic expeditions in the 19th century, where it was widely believed that scurvy could be prevented by practicing good hygiene, regular exercise, and by maintaining the morale of the crew while on board, rather than by a diet of fresh food.^[9] As a result, Arctic expeditions continued to be plagued by scurvy and other deficiency diseases. In the early 20th century, when Robert Falcon Scott made his two expeditions to the Antarctic, the prevailing medical theory was that scurvy was caused by "tainted" canned food.^[9]

During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the use of deprivation studies allowed scientists to isolate and identify a number of vitamins. Initially, lipid from fish oil was used to cure rickets in rats, and the fat-soluble nutrient was called "antirachitic A". Thus, the first "vitamin" bioactivity ever isolated, which cured rickets, was initially called "vitamin A", although confusingly the bioactivity of this compound is now called vitamin D.^[11] In 1881, Russian surgeon Nikolai Lunin studied the effects of scurvy while at the University of Tartu in present-day Estonia.^[12] He fed mice an artificial mixture of all the separate constituents of milk known at that time, namely the proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and salts. The mice that received only the individual constituents died, while the mice fed by milk itself developed normally. He made a conclusion that "a natural food such as milk must therefore contain, besides these known principal ingredients, small quantities of unknown substances essential to life."^[12] However, his conclusions were rejected by other researchers when they were unable to reproduce his results. One difference was that he had used table sugar (sucrose), while other researchers had used milk sugar (lactose) that still contained small amounts of vitamin B.

The Ancient Egyptians knew that feeding a patient liver (back, right) would help cure night blindness.

In east Asia, where polished white rice was the common staple food of the middle class, beriberi resulting from lack of vitamin B1 was endemic. In 1884, Takaki Kanehiro, a British trained medical doctor of the Imperial Japanese Navy, observed that beriberi was endemic among low-ranking crew who often ate nothing but rice, but not among crews of Western navies and officers who consumed a Western-style diet. With the support of the Japanese navy, he experimented using crews of two battleships; one crew was fed only white rice, while the other was fed a diet of meat, fish, barley, rice, and beans. The group that ate only white rice documented 161 crew members with beriberi and 25 deaths, while the latter group had only 14 cases of beriberi and no deaths. This convinced Kanehiro and the Japanese Navy that diet was the cause of beriberi, but mistakenly believed that sufficient amounts of protein prevented it.^[13] That diseases could result from some dietary deficiencies was further investigated by Christiaan Eijkman, who in 1897 discovered that feeding unpolished rice instead of the polished variety to chickens helped to prevent beriberi in the chickens. The following year, Frederick Hopkins postulated that some foods contained "accessory factors"—in addition to proteins, carbohydrates, fats, et cetera—that were necessary for the functions of the human body.^[9] Hopkins and Eijkman were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for their discovery of several vitamins.^[14]

In 1910, Japanese scientist Umetaro Suzuki succeeded in extracting a water-soluble complex of micronutrients from rice bran and named it aberic acid. He published this discovery in a Japanese scientific journal.^[15] When the article was translated into German, the translation failed to state that it was a newly discovered nutrient, a claim made in the original Japanese article, and hence his discovery failed to gain publicity. In 1912 Polish biochemist Kazimierz Funk isolated the same complex of micronutrients and proposed the complex be named "Vitamine" (a portmanteau of "vital amine").^[16] The name soon became synonymous with Hopkins' "accessory factors", and by the time it was shown that not all vitamins were amines, the word was already ubiquitous. In 1920, Jack Cecil Drummond proposed that the final "e" be dropped to deemphasize the "amine" reference after the discovery that vitamin C had no amine component.^[13]

In 1931, Albert Szent-Györgyi and a fellow researcher Joseph Svirbely determined that "hexuronic acid" was actually vitamin C and noted its anti-scorbutic activity. In 1937, Szent-Györgyi was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery. In 1943 Edward Adelbert Doisy and Henrik Dam were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of vitamin K and its chemical structure. In 1967, George Wald was awarded the Nobel Prize (along with Ragnar Granit and Haldan Keffer Hartline) for his discovery that vitamin A could participate directly in a physiological process.^[14]

[edit] In humans

Vitamins are classified as either water-soluble or fat soluble. In humans there are 13 vitamins: 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E and K) and 9 water-soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C). Water-soluble vitamins dissolve easily in water, and in general, are readily excreted from the body, to the degree that urinary output is a strong predictor of vitamin consumption.^[17] Because they are not readily stored, consistent daily intake is important.^[18] Many types of water-soluble vitamins are synthesized by bacteria.^[19] Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through the intestinal tract with the help of lipids (fats). Because they are more likely to accumulate in the body, they are more likely to lead to hypervitaminosis than are water-soluble vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamin regulation is of particular significance in cystic fibrosis.^[20]

[edit] List of vitamins

Each vitamin is typically used in multiple reactions and, therefore, most have multiple functions.^[21]

Vitamin generic descriptor name	Vitamer chemical name(s) (list not complete)	Solubility	Recommended dietary allowances (male, age 19–70)^[22]	Deficiency disease	Upper Intake Level (UL/day)^[22]	Overdose disease
Vitamin A	Retinoids (retinol, retinoids and carotenoids)	Fat	900 µg	Night-blindness and Keratomalacia^[23]	3,000 µg	Hypervitaminosis A
Vitamin B₁	Thiamine	Water	1.2 mg	Beriberi, Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome	N/D^[24]	Drowsiness or muscle relaxation with large doses.^[25]
Vitamin B₂	Riboflavin	Water	1.3 mg	Ariboflavinosis	N/D
Vitamin B₃	Niacin, niacinamide	Water	16.0 mg	Pellagra	35.0 mg	Liver damage (doses > 2g/day)^[26] and other problems
Vitamin B₅	Pantothenic acid	Water	5.0 mg^[27]	Paresthesia	N/D	Diarrhea; possibly nausea and heartburn.^[28]
Vitamin B₆	Pyridoxine, pyridoxamine, pyridoxal	Water	1.3–1.7 mg	Anemia^[29] peripheral neuropathy.	100 mg	Impairment of proprioception, nerve damage (doses > 100 mg/day)
Vitamin B₇	Biotin	Water	30.0 µg	Dermatitis, enteritis	N/D
Vitamin B₉	Folic acid, folinic acid	Water	400 µg	Deficiency during pregnancy is associated with birth defects, such as neural tube defects	1,000 µg	May mask symptoms of vitamin B₁₂ deficiency; other effects.
Vitamin B₁₂	Cyanocobalamin, hydroxycobalamin, methylcobalamin	Water	2.4 µg	Megaloblastic anemia^[30]	N/D	No known toxicity^[30]
Vitamin C	Ascorbic acid	Water	90.0 mg	Scurvy	2,000 mg	Vitamin C megadosage
Vitamin D	Ergocalciferol, cholecalciferol	Fat	5.0 µg–10 µg^[31]	Rickets and Osteomalacia	50 µg	Hypervitaminosis D
Vitamin E	Tocopherols, tocotrienols	Fat	15.0 mg	Deficiency is very rare; mild hemolytic anemia in newborn infants.^[32]	1,000 mg	Increased congestive heart failure seen in one large randomized study.^[33]
Vitamin K	phylloquinone, menaquinones	Fat	120 µg	Bleeding diathesis	N/D	Increases coagulation in patients taking warfarin.^[34]

[edit] In nutrition and diseases

Vitamins are essential for the normal growth and development of a multicellular organism. Using the genetic blueprint inherited from its parents, a fetus begins to develop, at the moment of conception, from the nutrients it absorbs. It requires certain vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times. These nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that produce among other things, skin, bone, and muscle. If there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients, a child may develop a deficiency disease. Even minor deficiencies may cause permanent damage.^[35]

For the most part, vitamins are obtained with food, but a few are obtained by other means. For example, microorganisms in the intestine—commonly known as "gut flora"—produce vitamin K and biotin, while one form of vitamin D is synthesized in the skin with the help of the natural ultraviolet wavelength of sunlight. Humans can produce some vitamins from precursors they consume. Examples include vitamin A, produced from beta carotene, and niacin, from the amino acid tryptophan.^[22]

Once growth and development are completed, vitamins remain essential nutrients for the healthy maintenance of the cells, tissues, and organs that make up a multicellular organism; they also enable a multicellular life form to efficiently use chemical energy provided by food it eats, and to help process the proteins, carbohydrates, and fats required for respiration.^[6]

[edit] Deficiencies

Because human bodies do not store most vitamins, humans must consume them regularly to avoid deficiency. Human bodily stores for different vitamins vary widely; vitamins A, D, and B₁₂ are stored in significant amounts in the human body, mainly in the liver,^[32] and an adult human's diet may be deficient in vitamins A and B₁₂ for many months before developing a deficiency condition. Vitamin B₃ is not stored in the human body in significant amounts, so stores may only last a couple of weeks.^[23]^[32] Deficiencies of vitamins are classified as either primary or secondary. A primary deficiency occurs when an organism does not get enough of the vitamin in its food. A secondary deficiency may be due to an underlying disorder that prevents or limits the absorption or use of the vitamin, due to a “lifestyle factor”, such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, or the use of medications that interfere with the absorption or use of the vitamin.^[32] People who eat a varied diet are unlikely to develop a severe primary vitamin deficiency. In contrast, restrictive diets have the potential to cause prolonged vitamin deficits, which may result in often painful and potentially deadly diseases.

Well-known human vitamin deficiencies involve thiamine (beriberi), niacin (pellagra), vitamin C (scurvy) and vitamin D (rickets). In much of the developed world, such deficiencies are rare; this is due to (1) an adequate supply of food; and (2) the addition of vitamins and minerals to common foods, often called fortification.^[22]^[32] In addition to these classical vitamin deficiency diseases, some evidence has also suggested links between vitamin deficiency and a number of different disorders.^[36]^[37]

[edit] Side effects and overdose

In large doses, some vitamins have documented side effects that tend to be more severe with a larger dosage. The likelihood of consuming too much of any vitamin from food is remote, but overdosing from vitamin supplementation does occur. At high enough dosages some vitamins cause side effects such as nausea, diarrhea, and vomiting.^[23]^[38]

When side effects emerge, recovery is often accomplished by reducing the dosage. The concentrations of vitamins an individual can tolerate vary widely, and appear to be related to age and state of health.^[39] In the United States, overdose exposure to all formulations of vitamins was reported by 62,562 individuals in 2004 (nearly 80% of these exposures were in children under the age of 6), leading to 53 "major" life-threatening outcomes and 3 deaths^[40];a small number in comparison to the 19,250 people who died of unintentional poisoning of all kinds in the U.S. in the same year (2004).^[41]

[edit] Supplements

Dietary supplements, often containing vitamins, are used to ensure that adequate amounts of nutrients are obtained on a daily basis, if optimal amounts of the nutrients cannot be obtained through a varied diet. Scientific evidence supporting the benefits of some vitamin supplements is well established for certain health conditions, but others need further study.^[42] In some cases, vitamin supplements may have unwanted effects, especially if taken before surgery, with other dietary supplements or medicines, or if the person taking them has certain health conditions.^[42] Dietary supplements may also contain levels of vitamins many times higher, and in different forms, than one may ingest through food.^[43]

A meta-analysis published in 2006 suggested that Vitamin A and E supplements not only provide no tangible health benefits for generally healthy individuals, but may actually increase mortality, although two large studies included in the analysis involved smokers, for which it was already known that beta-carotene supplements can be harmful.^[44] Another study released in May 2009 found that antioxidants such as vitamins C and E may actually curb some benefits of exercise.^[45]

[edit] Governmental regulation of vitamin supplements

Most countries place dietary supplements in a special category under the general umbrella of foods, not drugs. This necessitates that the manufacturer, and not the government, be responsible for ensuring that its dietary supplement products are safe before they are marketed. Unlike drug products, which must explicitly be proven safe and effective for their intended use before marketing, there are often no provisions to "approve" dietary supplements for safety or effectiveness before they reach the consumer. Also unlike drug products, manufacturers and distributors of dietary supplements are not generally required to report any claims of injuries or illnesses that may be related to the use of their products.^[46]^[47]^[42]

[edit] Names in current and previous nomenclatures

Nomenclature of reclassified vitamins
Previous name	Chemical name	Reason for name change^[48]
Vitamin B₄	Adenine	DNA metabolite
Vitamin B₈	Adenylic acid	DNA metabolite
Vitamin F	Essential fatty acids	Needed in large quantities (does not fit the definition of a vitamin).
Vitamin G	Riboflavin	Reclassified as Vitamin B₂
Vitamin H	Biotin	Reclassified as Vitamin B₇
Vitamin J	Catechol, Flavin	Protein metabolite
Vitamin L₁^[49]	Anthranilic acid	Protein metabolite
Vitamin L₂^[49]	Adenylthiomethylpentose	RNA metabolite
Vitamin M	Folic acid	Reclassified as Vitamin B₉
Vitamin O	Carnitine	Protein metabolite
Vitamin P	Flavonoids	No longer classified as a vitamin
Vitamin PP	Niacin	Reclassified as Vitamin B₃
Vitamin U	S-Methylmethionine	Protein metabolite

The reason the set of vitamins seems to skip directly from E to K is that the vitamins corresponding to "letters" F-J were either reclassified over time, discarded as false leads, or renamed because of their relationship to "vitamin B", which became a "complex" of vitamins. The German-speaking scientists who isolated and described vitamin K (in addition to naming it as such) did so because the vitamin is intimately involved in the Koagulation of blood following wounding. At the time, most (but not all) of the letters from F through to J were already designated, so the use of the letter K was considered quite reasonable.^[48]^[50] The table on the right lists chemicals that had previously been classified as vitamins, as well as the earlier names of vitamins that later became part of the B-complex.

[edit] See also

[edit] References

^ Lieberman, S, Bruning, N (1990). The Real Vitamin & Mineral Book. NY: Avery Group, 3.
^ Schuman, N, (1998). A History Of COntemplative Medicine. DC: Moseby, 1.
^ vitamin - definition of vitamin by the Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia
^ Template:Cite book.
^ "vitamer: Definition and Much More from Answers.com". www.answers.com. http://www.answers.com/topic/vitamer?cat=health#top. Retrieved 2008-06-16.
^ ^a ^b Bender, David A. (2003). Nutritional biochemistry of the vitamins. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80388-5.
^ Bolander FF (2006). "Vitamins: not just for enzymes". Curr Opin Investig Drugs 7 (10): 912–5. PMID 17086936.
^ Kirk-Othmer (1984). Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology Third Edition. NY: John Wiley and Sons, Vol. 24:104.

^ ^a ^b ^c
Minerals...more to come!

Wed, 21 Oct 2009 23:06:35 +0100

Mineral

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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For other uses, see Mineral (disambiguation).

A mineral is a naturally occurring solid formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition, a highly ordered atomic structure, and specific physical properties. A rock, by comparison, is an aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids, and need not have a specific chemical composition. Minerals range in composition from pure elements and simple salts to very complex silicates with thousands of known forms.^[1] The study of minerals is called mineralogy.

An assortment of minerals.

Contents
[hide]

1 Mineral definition and classification

1.1 Differences between minerals and rocks

1.1.1 Mineral composition of rocks

1.2 Physical properties of minerals
1.3 Chemical properties of minerals

1.3.1 Silicate class
1.3.2 Carbonate class
1.3.3 Sulfate class
1.3.4 Halide class
1.3.5 Oxide class
1.3.6 Sulfide class
1.3.7 Phosphate class
1.3.8 Element class
1.3.9 Organic class

2 See also
3 References
4 External links

[edit] Mineral definition and classification

To be classified as a true mineral, a substance must be a solid and have a crystalline structure. It must also be a naturally occurring, homogeneous substance with a defined chemical composition. Traditional definitions excluded organically derived material. However, the International Mineralogical Association in 1995 adopted a new definition:

a mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline and that has been formed as a result of geological processes.

^[2] The modern classifications include an organic class – in both the new Dana and the Strunz classification schemes.^[3]^[4]

The chemical composition may vary between end members of a mineral system. For example the plagioclase feldspars comprise a continuous series from sodium and silicon-rich albite (NaAlSi₃O₈) to calcium and aluminium-rich anorthite (CaAl₂Si₂O₈) with four recognized intermediate compositions between. Mineral-like substances that don't strictly meet the definition are sometimes classified as mineraloids. Other natural-occurring substances are nonminerals. Industrial minerals is a market term and refers to commercially valuable mined materials (see also Minerals and Rocks section below).

A crystal structure is the orderly geometric spatial arrangement of atoms in the internal structure of a mineral. There are 14 basic crystal lattice arrangements of atoms in three dimensions, and these are referred to as the 14 "Bravais lattices". Each of these lattices can be classified into one of the seven crystal systems, and all crystal structures currently recognized fit in one Bravais lattice and one crystal system. This crystal structure is based on regular internal atomic or ionic arrangement that is often expressed in the geometric form that the crystal takes. Even when the mineral grains are too small to see or are irregularly shaped, the underlying crystal structure is always periodic and can be determined by X-ray diffraction. Chemistry and crystal structure together define a mineral. In fact, two or more minerals may have the same chemical composition, but differ in crystal structure (these are known as polymorphs). For example, pyrite and marcasite are both iron sulfide, but their arrangement of atoms differs. Similarly, some minerals have different chemical compositions, but the same crystal structure: for example, halite (made from sodium and chlorine), galena (made from lead and sulfur) and periclase (made from magnesium and oxygen) all share the same cubic crystal structure.

Crystal structure greatly influences a mineral's physical properties. For example, though diamond and graphite have the same composition (both are pure carbon), graphite is very soft, while diamond is the hardest of all known minerals. This happens because the carbon atoms in graphite are arranged into sheets which can slide easily past each other, while the carbon atoms in diamond form a strong, interlocking three-dimensional network.

There are currently more than 4,000 known minerals, according to the International Mineralogical Association, which is responsible for the approval of and naming of new mineral species found in nature. Of these, perhaps 100 can be called "common", 50 are "occasional", and the rest are "rare" to "extremely rare".

[edit] Differences between minerals and rocks

A mineral is a naturally occurring solid with a definite chemical composition and a specific crystalline structure. A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals. (A rock may also include organic remains and mineraloids.) Some rocks are predominantly composed of just one mineral. For example, limestone is a sedimentary rock composed almost entirely of the mineral calcite. Other rocks contain many minerals, and the specific minerals in a rock can vary widely. Some minerals, like quartz, mica or feldspar are common, while others have been found in only four or five locations worldwide. The vast majority of the rocks of the Earth's crust consist of quartz, feldspar, mica, chlorite, kaolin, calcite, epidote, olivine, augite, hornblende, magnetite, hematite, limonite and a few other minerals.^[5] Over half of the mineral species known are so rare that they have only been found in a handful of samples, and many are known from only one or two small grains.

Commercially valuable minerals and rocks are referred to as industrial minerals. Rocks from which minerals are mined for economic purposes are referred to as ores (the rocks and minerals that remain, after the desired mineral has been separated from the ore, are referred to as tailings).

[edit] Mineral composition of rocks

A main determining factor in the formation of minerals in a rock mass is the chemical composition of the mass, for a certain mineral can be formed only when the necessary elements are present in the rock. Calcite is most common in limestones, as these consist essentially of calcium carbonate; quartz is common in sandstones and in certain igneous rocks which contain a high percentage of silica.

Other factors are of equal importance in determining the natural association or paragenesis of rock-forming minerals, principally the mode of origin of the rock and the stages through which it has passed in attaining its present condition. Two rock masses may have very much the same bulk composition and yet consist of entirely different assemblages of minerals. The tendency is always for those compounds to be formed which are stable under the conditions under which the rock mass originated. A granite arises by the consolidation of a molten magma at high temperatures and great pressures and its component minerals are those stable under such conditions. Exposed to moisture, carbonic acid and other subaerial agents at the ordinary temperatures of the Earth's surface, some of these original minerals, such as quartz and white mica are relatively stable and remain unaffected; others weather or decay and are replaced by new combinations. The feldspar passes into kaolinite, muscovite and quartz, and any mafic minerals such as pyroxenes, amphiboles or biotite have been present they are often altered to chlorite, epidote, rutile and other substances. These changes are accompanied by disintegration, and the rock falls into a loose, incoherent, earthy mass which may be regarded as a sand or soil. The materials thus formed may be washed away and deposited as sandstone or siltstone. The structure of the original rock is now replaced by a new one; the mineralogical constitution is profoundly altered; but the bulk chemical composition may not be very different. The sedimentary rock may again undergo metamorphism. If penetrated by igneous rocks it may be recrystallized or, if subjected to enormous pressures with heat and movement during mountain building, it may be converted into a gneiss not very different in mineralogical composition though radically different in structure to the granite which was its original state.^[5]

[edit] Physical properties of minerals

Classifying minerals can range from simple to very difficult. A mineral can be identified by several physical properties, some of them being sufficient for full identification without equivocation. In other cases, minerals can only be classified by more complex chemical or X-ray diffraction analysis; these methods, however, can be costly and time-consuming.

Physical properties commonly used are:^[1]

Crystal structure and habit: See the above discussion of crystal structure. A mineral may show good crystal habit or form, or it may be massive, granular or compact with only microscopically visible crystals.

Talc

Rough diamond.

Hardness: the physical hardness of a mineral is usually measured according to the Mohs scale. This scale is relative and goes from 1 to 10. Minerals with a given Mohs hardness can scratch the surface of any mineral that has a lower hardness than itself.

Mohs hardness scale:^[6]

Talc Mg₃Si₄O₁₀(OH)₂
Gypsum CaSO₄·2H₂O
Calcite CaCO₃
Fluorite CaF₂
Apatite Ca₅(PO₄)₃(OH,Cl,F)
Orthoclase KAlSi₃O₈
Quartz SiO₂
Topaz Al₂SiO₄(OH,F)₂
Corundum Al₂O₃
Diamond C (pure carbon)

Luster indicates the way a mineral's surface interacts with light and can range from dull to glassy (vitreous).

Metallic -high reflectivity like metal: galena and pyrite
Sub-metallic -slightly less than metallic reflectivity: magnetite
Non-metallic lusters:

Adamantine – brilliant, the luster of diamond also cerussite and anglesite
Vitreous -the luster of a broken glass: quartz
Pearly – iridescent and pearl-like: talc and apophyllite
Resinous – the luster of resin: sphalerite and sulfur
Silky – a soft light shown by fibrous materials: gypsum and chrysotile
Dull/earthy - shown by finely crystallized minerals: the kidney ore variety of hematite

Color indicates the appearance of the mineral in reflected light or transmitted light for translucent minerals (i.e. what it looks like to the naked eye).

Iridescence – the play of colors due to surface or internal interference. Labradorite exhibits internal iridescence whereas hematite and sphalerite often show the surface effect.

Streak refers to the color of the powder a mineral leaves after rubbing it on an unglazed porcelain streak plate. Note that this is not always the same color as the original mineral.
Cleavage describes the way a mineral may split apart along various planes. In thin sections, cleavage is visible as thin parallel lines across a mineral.
Fracture describes how a mineral breaks when broken contrary to its natural cleavage planes.

Chonchoidal fracture is a smooth curved fracture with concentric ridges of the type shown by glass.
Hackley is jagged fracture with sharp edges.
Fibrous
Irregular

Specific gravity relates the mineral mass to the mass of an equal volume of water, namely the density of the material. While most minerals, including all the common rock-forming minerals, have a specific gravity of 2.5–3.5, a few are noticeably more or less dense, e.g. several sulfide minerals have high specific gravity compared to the common rock-forming minerals.
Other properties: fluorescence (response to ultraviolet light), magnetism, radioactivity, tenacity (response to mechanical induced changes of shape or form), piezoelectricity and reactivity to dilute acids.

[edit] Chemical properties of minerals

Minerals may be classified according to chemical composition. They are here categorized by anion group. The list below is in approximate order of their abundance in the Earth's crust. The list follows the Dana classification system^[1]^[7] which closely parallels the Strunz classification.

[edit] Silicate class

Quartz

The largest group of minerals by far are the silicates (most rocks are ≥95% silicates), which are composed largely of silicon and oxygen, with the addition of ions such as aluminium, magnesium, iron, and calcium. Some important rock-forming silicates include the feldspars, quartz, olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, garnets, and micas.

[edit] Carbonate class

The carbonate minerals consist of those minerals containing the anion (CO₃)^2- and include calcite and aragonite (both calcium carbonate), dolomite (magnesium/calcium carbonate) and siderite (iron carbonate). Carbonates are commonly deposited in marine settings when the shells of dead planktonic life settle and accumulate on the sea floor. Carbonates are also found in evaporitic settings (e.g. the Great Salt Lake, Utah) and also in karst regions, where the dissolution and reprecipitation of carbonates leads to the formation of caves, stalactites and stalagmites. The carbonate class also includes the nitrate and borate minerals.

[edit] Sulfate class

Sulfate minerals all contain the sulfate anion, SO₄^2-. Sulfates commonly form in evaporitic settings where highly saline waters slowly evaporate, allowing the formation of both sulfates and halides at the water-sediment interface. Sulfates also occur in hydrothermal vein systems as gangue minerals along with sulfide ore minerals. Another occurrence is as secondary oxidation products of original sulfide minerals. Common sulfates include anhydrite (calcium sulfate), celestine (strontium sulfate), barite (barium sulfate), and gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate). The sulfate class also includes the chromate, molybdate, selenate, sulfite, tellurate, and tungstate minerals.

[edit] Halide class

Halite

The halide minerals are the group of minerals forming the natural salts and include fluorite (calcium fluoride), halite (sodium chloride), sylvite (potassium chloride), and sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride). Halides, like sulfates, are commonly found in evaporite settings such as playa lakes and landlocked seas such as the Dead Sea and Great Salt Lake. The halide class includes the fluoride, chloride, bromide and iodide minerals.

[edit] Oxide class

Oxide minerals are extremely important in mining as they form many of the ores from which valuable metals can be extracted. They also carry the best record of changes in the Earth's magnetic field. They commonly occur as precipitates close to the Earth's surface, oxidation products of other minerals in the near surface weathering zone, and as accessory minerals in igneous rocks of the crust and mantle. Common oxides include hematite (iron oxide), magnetite (iron oxide), chromite (iron chromium oxide), spinel (magnesium aluminium oxide – a common component of the mantle), ilmenite (iron titanium oxide), rutile (titanium dioxide), and ice (hydrogen oxide). The oxide class includes the oxide and the hydroxide minerals.

[edit] Sulfide class

Many sulfide minerals are economically important as metal ores. Common sulfides include pyrite (iron sulfide – commonly known as fools' gold), chalcopyrite (copper iron sulfide), pentlandite (nickel iron sulfide), and galena (lead sulfide). The sulfide class also includes the selenides, the tellurides, the arsenides, the antimonides, the bismuthinides, and the sulfosalts (sulfur and a second anion such as arsenic).

[edit] Phosphate class

The phosphate mineral group actually includes any mineral with a tetrahedral unit AO₄ where A can be phosphorus, antimony, arsenic or vanadium. By far the most common phosphate is apatite which is an important biological mineral found in teeth and bones of many animals. The phosphate class includes the phosphate, arsenate, vanadate, and antimonate minerals.

[edit] Element class

The elemental group includes metals and intermetallic elements (gold, silver, copper), semi-metals and non-metals (antimony, bismuth, graphite, sulfur). This group also includes natural alloys, such as electrum (a natural alloy of gold and silver), phosphides, silicides, nitrides and carbides (which are usually only found naturally in a few rare meteorites).

[edit] Organic class

The organic mineral class includes biogenic substances in which geological processes have been a part of the genesis or origin of the existing compound.^[2] Minerals of the organic class include various oxalates, mellitates, citrates, cyanates, acetates, formates, hydrocarbons and other miscellaneous species.^[3] Examples include whewellite, moolooite, mellite, fichtelite, carpathite, evenkite and abelsonite.

[edit] See also

A list of minerals with associated Wikipedia articles
A comprehensive list of minerals
Dietary mineral
Industrial minerals
Mineral processing
Mineral water
Mineral wool

Mining
Norman L. Bowen
Ores
Quarry
Rocks
Strunz classification
Tucson Gem & Mineral Show

[edit] References

^ ^a ^b ^c Dana, James D. (06 March 1985). Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis. eds. Manual of Mineralogy (20 ed.). John Wiley & Sons Inc. ISBN 0-471-80580-7. free older version: 1912 edition
^ ^a ^b Nickel, Ernest H. (June 1995). "The definition of a mineral". The Canadian Mineralogist 33 (3): 689–690. http://www.canmin.org/cgi/content/abstract/33/3/689. alt version
^ ^a ^b http://www.mindat.org/dana.php?a=50 Dana Classification 8th edition - ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
^ http://www.mindat.org/strunz.php?a=9 Strunz Classification - Organic Compounds
^ ^a ^b This article incorporates text from the article "Petrology" in the Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.
^ http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/Pglossary/mineral.html USGS Photo glossary of volcano terms
^ http://www.minerals.net/mineral/sort-met.hod/dana/dana.htm Dana classification - Minerals.net

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Minerals

mindat.org Mindat database
Webmineral.com
Mineral atlas with properties, photos
Ontogeny of minerals in drawings. Drawings of crystals, druses, and mineral aggregates. Every work here may illustrate genetic features of minerals (their history, or ontogenesis, and formative processes).

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral"

Categories: Mineralogy | Minerals

Spices, ...more to come...

Wed, 21 Oct 2009 23:04:00 +0100

Spice

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For other uses, see Spice (disambiguation).

"Spiciness" redirects here. For the sensation of eating spicy-hot foods, see Pungency.

A group of Indian spices and herbs in bowls.

A typical assortment of spices used in Indian cuisine

A spice is a dried seed, fruit, root, bark, leaf, or vegetative substance used in nutritionally insignificant quantities as a food additive for the purpose of flavour, colour, or as a preservative that kills harmful bacteria or prevents their growth.^[1]

Many of these substances are also used for other purposes, such as medicine, religious rituals, cosmetics, perfumery or eating as vegetables. For example, turmeric is also used as a preservative; liquorice as a medicine; garlic as a vegetable. In some cases they are referred to by different terms.

In the kitchen, spices are distinguished from herbs, which are leafy, green plant parts used for flavouring purposes. Herbs, such as basil or oregano, may be used fresh, and are commonly chopped into smaller pieces. Spices, however, are dried and often ground or grated into a powder. Small seeds, such as fennel and mustard seeds, are used both whole and in powder form.

Contents
[hide]

1 Classification and types
2 Early history

2.1 Middle Ages
2.2 Early modern period

3 Spice racks
4 Common spice mixtures
5 Production
6 Standardization
7 References
8 Further reading
9 Sources
10 See also

[edit] Classification and types

See also: List of herbs and spices

Spices can be grouped as:

Dried fruits or seeds, such as fennel, mustard, and black pepper.
Arils, such as mace.
Barks, such as cinnamon and cassia.
Dried buds, such as cloves.
Stigmas, such as saffron.
Roots and rhizomes, such as turmeric, ginger and galingale.
Resins, such as asa foetida

Herbs, such as bay, basil, and thyme are not, strictly speaking, spices, although they have similar uses in flavouring food. The same can be said of vegetables such as onions and garlic.

[edit] Early history

The earliest evidence of the use of spice by humans was around 50,000 B.C. The spice trade developed throughout the Middle East in around 2000 BC with cinnamon and pepper. The Egyptians used herbs for embalming and their need for exotic herbs helped stimulate world trade. In fact, the word spice comes from the same root as species, meaning kinds of goods. By 1000 BC China and India had a medical system based upon herbs. Early uses were connected with magic, medicine, religion, tradition and preservation^[2].

A recent archaeological discovery suggests that the clove, indigenous to the Indonesian island of Ternate in the Maluku Islands, could have been introduced to the Middle East very early on. Digs found a clove burnt onto the floor of a burned down kitchen in the Mesopotamian site of Terqa, in what is now modern-day Syria, dated to 1700 BC ^[3].

In the story of Genesis, Joseph was sold into slavery by his brothers to spice merchants. In the biblical poem Song of Solomon, the male speaker compares his beloved to many forms of spices. Generally, Egyptian, Chinese, Indian and Mesopotamian sources do not refer to known spices.

In South Asia, nutmeg, which originates from the Banda Islands in the Molukas, has a Sanskrit name. Sanskrit is the ancient language of India, this shows how old the usage of this spice is in this region. Historians estimate that nutmeg was introduced to Europe in the 6th century BC ^[4].

The ancient Indian epic of Ramayana mentions cloves. In any case, it is known that the Romans had cloves in the 1st century AD because Pliny the Elder spoke of them in his writings.

Indonesian merchants went around China, India, the Middle East and the east coast of Africa. Arab merchants facilitated the routes through the Middle East and India. This made the city of Alexandria in Egypt the main trading centre for spices because of its port. The most important discovery prior to the European spice trade were the monsoon winds (40 AD). Sailing from Eastern spice growers to Western European consumers gradually replaced the land-locked spice routes once facilitated by the Middle East Arab caravans. ^[5]

[edit] Middle Ages

"The Mullus" Harvesting pepper. Illustration from a French edition of The Travels of Marco Polo.

Spices were among the most luxurious products available in Europe in the Middle Ages, the most common being black pepper, cinnamon (and the cheaper alternative cassia), cumin, nutmeg, ginger and cloves. They were all imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them extremely expensive. From the 8th until the 15th century, the Republic of Venice had the monopoly on spice trade with the Middle East, and along with it the neighboring Italian city-states. The trade made the region phenomenally rich. It has been estimated that around 1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000 tons of the other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the Late Middle Ages. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people.^[6] While pepper was the most common spice, the most exclusive was saffron, used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor. Spices that have now fallen into some obscurity include grains of paradise, a relative of cardamom which almost entirely replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking, long pepper, mace, spikenard, galangal and cubeb. A popular modern-day misconception is that medieval cooks used liberal amounts of spices, particularly black pepper, merely to disguise the taste of spoiled meat. However, a medieval feast was as much a culinary event as it was a display of the host's vast resources and generosity, and as most nobles had a wide selection of fresh or preserved meats, fish or seafood to choose from, the use of ruinously expensive spices on cheap, rotting meat would have made little sense.^[7]

[edit] Early modern period

The control of trade routes and the spice-producing regions were the main reasons that Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama sailed to India in 1499. Spain and Portugal were not happy to pay the high price that Venice demanded for spices. At around the same time, Christopher Columbus returned from the New World, he described to investors the many new, and then unknown, spices available there.

It was Afonso de Albuquerque (1453–1515) who allowed the Portuguese to take control of the sea routes to India. In 1506, he took the island of Socotra in the mouth of the Red Sea and, in 1507, Ormuz in the Persian Gulf. Since becoming the viceroy of the Indies, he took Goa in India in 1510, and Malacca on the Malay peninsula in 1511. The Portuguese could now trade directly with Siam, China and the Moluccas. The Silk Road complemented the Portuguese sea routes, and brought the treasures of the Orient to Europe via Lisbon, including many spices.

With the discovery of the New World came new spices, including allspice, bell and chili peppers, vanilla and that greatest of flavorings, chocolate. Although new settlers brought herbs to North America, before 1750 it was thought that you could not grow plants or trees outside their native habitat. This belief kept the spice trade, with America as a late comer with its new seasonings, profitable well into the 19th century.

In the Caribbean, the island of Grenada is well known for growing and exporting a number of spices including the nutmeg which was introduced to Grenada by the settlers.

[edit] Spice racks

While spices themselves are tens of thousands of years old, the spice rack has an origin that dates to about 1,000 B.C. Today, the rack has moved from a functional kitchen fixture to a largely decorative item, with many spice users content to rely on commercial containers with “one-hand” flip-top closures and even built-in grinders.

[edit] Common spice mixtures

Spices and herbs at a grocery shop in Goa, India

Berbere (Ethiopia and Eritrea)
Chimichurri (Argentina and Uruguay)
Colombo (paprika, cumin, coriander, nutmeg, ginger, black pepper, star anise, cardamom, cloves, mustard grains, saffron)
Curry powder (Indian-style, used in the West and Japan)
Five bays
Five-spice powder (China)
Garam Masala (India)
Herbes de Provence (Southern France)
Jerk spice (Jamaica)
Khmeli suneli (Georgia)
Masalas, including garam masala (India)
Old Bay Seasoning (United States)
Panch phoron (Bangladesh)
Poultry Seasoning (United States)
Pumpkin pie spice (United States)
Quatre épices (France)
Ras el hanout (Middle East/North Africa)
Shichimi togarashi (Japan)
Za'atar (Middle East)

[edit] Production

Shop with spices in Morocco

The Gato Negro café and spice shop (Buenos Aires, Argentina).

A typical home's kitchen shelf of spices as would be seen in the United States or Canada.

Production in tonnes. Figures 2003-2004
Researched by FAOSTAT (FAO)

India 1 600 000 86 %

China 99 000 5 %

Bangladesh 48 000 3 %

Pakistan 45 300 2 %

Nepal 15 500 1 %

Other countries 60 900 3 %

Total 1 868 700 100 %

[edit] Standardization

ISO is has published a series of standards regarding the products of the topic and these standards are covered by ICS 67.220 ^[8].

[edit] References

^ "Food Bacteria-Spice Survey Shows Why Some Cultures Like It Hot". ScienceDaily. March 5, 1998. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1998/03/980305053307.htm.
^ A Busy Cook's Guide to Spices by Linda Murdock (pp.14)
^ Buccellati et Buccellati (1983)
^ Burkill (1966)
^ A Busy Cook's Guide to Spices by Linda Murdock (pp.14)
^ Adamson, p. 65
^ Scully, pp. 84-86.
^ International Organization for Standardization. "67.220: Spices and condiments. Food additives". http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=67&ICS2=220&development=on. Retrieved 23 April 2009.

[edit] Further reading

Books

Corn, Charles. Scents of Eden: A History of the Spice Trade. New York: Kodansha, 1999.
Czarra, Fred (2009). Spices: A Global History. Reaktion Books. pp. 128. ISBN 9781861894267. [1]
Dalby, Andrew. Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
Freedman, Paul. Out of the East: Spices and the Medieval Imagination. New Haven: Yale UP, 2008.
Keay, John. The Spice Route: A History. Berkeley: U of California P, 2006.
Krondl, Michael. The Taste of Conquest: The Rise and Fall of the Three Great Cities of Spice. New York: Ballantine Books, 2007.
Miller, J. Innes. The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1969.
Morton, Timothy. Poetics of Spice: Romantic Consumerism and the Exotic. Cambridge UP, 2000.
Turner, Jack (2004). Spice: The History of a Temptation. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-40721-9.

Articles

"Food Bacteria-Spice Survey Shows Why Some Cultures Like It Hot". http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1998/03/980305053307.htm. Retrieved 2008-12-20. "...Garlic, onion, allspice and oregano, for example, were found to be the best all-around bacteria killers (they kill everything)"
Sallam, Kh.I.; Ishioroshi, M; Samejimab, K.. Antioxidant and antimicrobial effects of garlic in chicken sausage.
Billing, Jennifer; Sherman, Paul W. (March 1998). "Antimicrobial Functions of Spices: Why Some Like it Hot". The Quarterly Review of Biology 73 (1). doi:10.1086/420058.
"Common Kitchen Spices Kill E. Coli O157:H7". 18 August 1998. http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/pr_fsaf/News%20Releases/relspicfung.htm. "...The study is the first in the United States that looks at the effect of common spices on E. coli O157:H7. Previous studies have concluded spices kill other foodborne pathogens. 'In the first part of our study, we tested 23 spices against E. coli O157:H7 in the laboratory', Fung said. 'We found that several spices are good at killing this strain of E. coli.'"
"The Lure and Lore of Spices". http://www.thespicehouse.com/info/lore/. "If the appearance of spices were to reflect their real importance in the history of the world, the bottles of spices would be filled with bright glittery substances, diamonds, rubies, emeralds or gold would be appropriate. When you opened the bottle, a poof of vibrantly colored, mystically fragrant, magical smoke would slowly billow softly throughout the room."
"Spice". Encyclopedia of Spices, Spice Blends by Region, The Spice Trade. http://www.theepicentre.com/Spices/spiceref.html. Retrieved 2008-12-20.

[edit] Sources

Adamson, Melitta Weiss (2004), Food in Medieval Times. ISBN 0-313-32147-7.
Scully, Terence (1995), The Art of Cookery in the Middle Ages. ISBN 0-85115-611-8.

[edit] See also

Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Spice

Look up spice in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Spice

List of herbs and spices
List of Indian spices
Spice trade
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Herbs and spices

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Herbs

Angelica · Basil · Basil, holy · Basil, Thai · Bay leaf · Boldo · Bolivian Coriander · Borage · Chervil · Chives · Cicely · Coriander leaf (cilantro) · Cress · Curry leaf · Dill · Elsholtzia ciliata · Epazote · Eryngium foetidum (long coriander) · Hemp · Hoja santa · Houttuynia cordata (giấp cá) · Hyssop · Jimbu · Lavender · Lemon balm · Lemon grass · Lemon myrtle · Lemon verbena · Limnophila aromatica (rice paddy herb) · Lovage · Marjoram · Mint · Mitsuba · Oregano · Parsley · Perilla (shiso) · Rosemary · Rue · Sage · Savory · Sorrel · Tarragon · Thyme · Vietnamese coriander (rau răm) · Woodruff

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Ajwain (bishop's weed) · Aleppo pepper · Allspice · Amchur (mango powder) · Anise · Aromatic ginger · Asafoetida · Camphor · Caraway · Cardamom · Charoli · Cardamom, black · Cassia · Cayenne pepper · Celery seed · Chenpi · Chili · Cinnamon · Clove · Coriander seed · Cubeb · Cumin · Cumin, black · Dill & dill seed · Fennel · Fenugreek · Fingerroot (krachai) · Galangal, greater · Galangal, lesser · Garlic · Ginger · Golpar · Grains of Paradise · Grains of Selim · Horseradish · Juniper berry · Kaempferia galanga (kencur) · Kokum · Lime, black · Liquorice · Litsea cubeba · Mace · Mahlab · Malabathrum (tejpat) · Mustard, black · Mustard, brown · Mustard, white · Nigella (kalonji) · Nutmeg · Paprika · Peppercorn (black, green & white) · Pepper, long · Herbs)

Jump to: navigation, search

For other uses, see Herb (disambiguation).

Please help improve this article by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page. (March 2008)

This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2008)

Basil, a common culinary herb.

A herb is a plant that is valued for flavor, scent, or other qualities.^[1] Herbs are used in cooking, as medicines, and for spiritual purposes.

In American English the pronunciation of "herb" varies by individual, with the initial "h" either silent or pronounced (/ˈɝːb/ or /hˈɝːb/) on no noticeable regional or socioeconomic basis, but in British English the sounded "h" predominates: /ˈhɜːb/ (see American and British English pronunciation differences).

Contents
[hide]

1 Uses

1.1 Culinary herbs
1.2 Medicinal herbs
1.3 Sacred herbs
1.4 Pest control

2 Botanical herbs
3 See also
4 References
5 External links

[edit] Uses

Herbs have a variety of uses including culinary, medicinal, or in some cases even spiritual usage. General usage differs between culinary herbs and medicinal herbs. In medicinal or spiritual use any of the parts of the plant might be considered "herbs", including leaves, roots, flowers, seeds, resin, root bark, inner bark (cambium), berries and sometimes the pericarp or other portions of the plant.

[edit] Culinary herbs

Culinary use of the term "herb" typically distinguishes between herbs, from the leafy green parts of a plant, and spices, from other parts of the plant, including seeds, berries, bark, root, fruit, and even occasionally dried leaves or roots. Culinary herbs are distinguished from vegetables in that, like spices, they are used in small amounts and provide flavor rather than substance to food.

Some culinary herbs are shrubs (such as rosemary, Rosmarinus officinalis), or trees (such as bay laurel, Laurus nobilis) – this contrasts with botanical herbs, which by definition cannot be woody plants. Some plants are used as both a spice and an herb, such as dill seed and dill weed or coriander seeds and coriander leaves.

[edit] Medicinal herbs

Main article: Herbalism

Plants contain phytochemicals that have effects on the body. Throughout history, from the Bible, Koran, Vedas and other old texts, the medicinal benefits of herbs are quoted.

There may be some effects when consumed in the small levels that typify culinary "spicing", and some herbs are toxic in larger quantities. For instance, some types of herbal extract, such as the extract of St. John's-wort (Hypericum perforatum) or of kava (Piper methysticum) can be used for medical purposes to relieve depression and stress. However, large amounts of these herbs may lead to poisoning, and should be used with caution. One herb-like substance, called Shilajit, may actually help lower blood glucose levels which is especially important for those suffering from diabetes. Herbs have long been used as the basis of traditional Chinese herbal medicine, with usage dating as far back as the first century CE.^[2]

Some herbs are used not only for culinary and medicinal purposes, but also for recreational purposes; one such herb is cannabis.

[edit] Sacred herbs

Main article: Sacred herbs

Herbs are used in many religions – such as in Christianity myrrh and frankincense which was used to honor kings. (Commiphora myrrha), ague root (Aletris farinosa) (Boswellia spp)) and in the Anglo-Saxon pagan Nine Herbs Charm. In Hinduism a form of Basil called Tulsi is worshipped as a goddess for its medicinal value since the Vedic times. Many Hindus have a Tulsi plant in front of their houses.

The shamans in Siberia also used herbs for spiritual purposes. Drugs and plants have been used world wide to induce spiritual experiences.

[edit] Pest control

Main article: Pest control

Herbs are also known amongst gardeners to be useful for pest control. Mint, Spearmint, Peppermint, and Pennyroyal are a few of such herbs. These herbs when planted around a house's foundation can help keep unwanted critters away such as flies, mice, ants, flees, moth and tick amongst others. They are not known to be harmful or dangerous to children or pets, or any of the house's fixtures ^[3].

[edit] Botanical herbs

Main article: Herbaceous plant

In botanical usage a herb or herbaceous plant is any non-woody plant, regardless of its flavor, scent or other properties. A botanical herb cannot therefore be a woody plant such as a tree or shrub.

[edit] See also

List of plants used as medicine
Herbaceous plant
Pot herb
Apothecary
Herbalism
Herb garden
The Herb Society of America
International Herb Association
List of herbs and spices
Remedy
Prehistoric medicine
Strewing herb

[edit] References

^ "Dictionary.com". http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/herb. Retrieved 2007-12-19.
^ "Chinese Herbal Medicine". http://www.acupuncturehemelhempstead.com/chineseremedies.html. Retrieved 2007-12-19.
^ Herb Garden Plants

[edit] External links

Find more about Herb on Wikipedia's sister projects:
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Textbooks from Wikibooks
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Images and media from Commons
News stories from Wikinews
Learning resources from Wikiversity

How to Grow Herbs
Herb Research Foundation
Research and Find Herbs
Indian herbalMedicines

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v • d • e
Herbs and spices

[show]
Herbs

Angelica · Basil · Basil, holy · Basil, Thai · Bay leaf · Boldo · Bolivian Coriander · Borage · Chervil · Chives · Cicely · Coriander leaf (cilantro) · Cress · Curry leaf · Dill · Elsholtzia ciliata · Epazote · Eryngium foetidum (long coriander) · Hemp · Hoja santa · Houttuynia cordata (giấp cá) · Hyssop · Jimbu · Lavender · Lemon balm · Lemon grass · Lemon myrtle · Lemon verbena · Limnophila aromatica (rice paddy herb) · Lovage · Marjoram · Mint · Mitsuba · Oregano · Parsley · Perilla (shiso) · Rosemary · Rue · Sage · Savory · Sorrel · Tarragon · Thyme · Vietnamese coriander (rau răm) · Woodruff

[show]
Spices

Ajwain (bishop's weed) · Aleppo pepper · Allspice · Amchur (mango powder) · Anise · Aromatic ginger · Asafoetida · Camphor · Caraway · Cardamom · Charoli · Cardamom, black · Cassia · Cayenne pepper · Celery seed · Chenpi · Chili · Cinnamon · Clove · Coriander seed · Cubeb · Cumin · Cumin, black · Dill & dill seed · Fennel · Fenugreek · Fingerroot (krachai) · Galangal, greater · Galangal, lesser · Garlic · Ginger · Golpar · Grains of Paradise · Grains of Selim · Horseradish · Juniper berry · Kaempferia galanga (kencur) · Kokum · Lime, black · Liquorice · Litsea cubeba · Mace · Mahlab · Malabathrum (tejpat) · Mustard, black · Mustard, brown · Mustard, white · Nigella (kalonji) · Nutmeg · Paprika · Peppercorn (black, green & white) · Pepper, long · Radhuni · Rose · Pepper, Brazilian · Pepper, Peruvian · Pomegranate seed (anardana) · Poppy seed · Salt · Saffron · Sarsaparilla · Sassafras · Sesame · Sichuan pepper (huājiāo, sansho) · Star anise · Sumac · Tasmanian pepper · Tamarind · Tonka bean · Turmeric · Vanilla · Wasabi · Zedoary · Zereshk · Zest

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Herb and spice mixtures

Adjika · Advieh · Afghan spice rub · Baharat · Berbere · Bouquet garni · Buknu · Chaat masala · Chaunk · Chile powder · Chili powder · Crab boil · Curry powder · Fines herbes · Five-spice powder · Garam masala · Garlic salt · Harissa · Hawayij · Herbes de Provence · Jerk spice · Khmeli suneli · Lemon pepper · Masala · Mitmita · Mixed spice · Old Bay Seasoning · Panch phoron · Persillade · Pumpkin pie spice · Qâlat Daqqa · Quatre épices · Ras el hanout · Recado rojo · Sharena sol · Shichimi · Tabil · Tandoori masala · Za'atar

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Lists of herbs and spices

List of Australian herbs and spices · Chinese herbs · List of Indian spices · List of Pakistani spices · List of culinary herbs and spices

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Related topics

Marinating · Spice rub

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Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herb"

Categories: Herbs

Mushroom Poisonning...

Wed, 21 Oct 2009 23:01:19 +0100

Mushroom poisoning

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

See also: List of deadly fungi

Mushroom poisoning

Classification and external resources

Amanita phalloides accounts for the majority of fatal mushroom poisonings worldwide.

ICD-10 T 62.0

ICD-9 988.1

MeSH D009145

Mushroom poisoning, also known as mycetism, refers to deleterious effects from ingestion of toxic substances present in a mushroom. These symptoms can vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to death. The toxins present are secondary metabolites produced in specific biochemical pathways in the fungal cells. Mushroom poisoning is usually the result of ingestion of wild mushrooms after misidentification of a toxic mushroom as an edible species. The most common reason for this misidentification is close resemblance in terms of colour and general morphology of the toxic mushrooms species with edible species. Even very experienced wild mushroom gatherers are sometimes poisoned by eating toxic species, despite being well aware of the risks.

To prevent mushroom poisoning, mushroom gatherers need to be very intimately familiar with the mushrooms they intend to collect, including knowledge of the toxic species that look similar to these edible species. Other considerations regard methods of preparation and toxicity of some fungal species that appears to vary with geographic location, raising the potential of mushroom poisoning due to local toxicity of a correctly identified species.

Contents
[hide]

1 Folk traditions
2 Causes of mushroom poisoning
3 Toxins and their symptoms
4 Poisonous mushrooms
5 Other causes of poisoning
6 Famous poisonings
7 References
8 External links

[edit] Folk traditions

There are many folk traditions concerning the defining features of poisonous mushrooms.^[1]^[2] Unfortunately there are no general identifiers for poisonous mushrooms, and so such traditions are unreliable guides. Use of folk traditions to try to identify edible mushrooms are a frequent cause of mushroom poisoning.
Examples of such erroneous and highly misleading folklore "rules" include:

"Poisonous mushrooms are brightly colored."—While the toxic/hallucinogenic fly agaric is usually bright red or yellow, the deadly destroying angel is an unremarkable white, and the deadly Galerinas are brown. Some choice edible species (chanterelles, Amanita caesarea, Laetiporus sulphureus, etc.) are brightly colored, while most poisonous species are brown or white.
"Insects/animals will avoid toxic mushrooms."—Fungi that are harmless to invertebrates can still be toxic to humans; the death cap, for instance, is often infested by insect larvae. Also, animals do not always know to avoid poisonous species.
"Poisonous mushrooms blacken silver."—None of the known mushroom toxins have a reaction with silver.
"Poisonous mushrooms taste bad."—People who have eaten the deadly Amanitas reported that the mushrooms tasted quite good.
"All mushrooms are safe if cooked/parboiled/dried/pickled/etc."—While it is true that some otherwise inedible species can be rendered safe by special preparation, many toxic species cannot be made toxin-free. Many fungal toxins are not particularly sensitive to heat and so are not broken down during cooking; particularly α-amanitin, the poison produced by the death cap (Amanita phalloides) and others of the genus, is not denatured by heat.
"Poisonous mushrooms will turn rice red when boiled"^[3].—A number of Laotian refugees were hospitalized after eating mushrooms (probably toxic Russula species) deemed safe by this folklore rule.
"Poisonous mushrooms have a pointed cap. Edible ones have a flat, rounded cap."—The shape of the mushroom cap does not correlate with presence or absence of mushroom toxins, so this is not a reliable method to distinguish between edible and poisonous species.

[edit] Causes of mushroom poisoning

Of the many thousands of mushroom species in the world, only 32 have been associated with fatalities, and an additional 52 have been identified as containing significant toxins.^[4] By far the majority of mushroom poisonings are not fatal,^[5] but the majority of fatal poisonings are attributable to the Amanita phalloides mushroom.^[6]

Amanita spp, immature (possibly poisonous) Amanita mushrooms.

Coprinus comatus, immature (edible) shaggy mane mushrooms.

A majority of these cases are due to "mistaken identity." One way this can happen is that the victim attempts to apply folk knowledge from one area to another geographic area.^[3] This is a common occurrence with A. phalloides in particular, due to its resemblance to the Asian "paddy-straw" mushroom, Volvariella volvacea. Both are light-colored and covered with a universal veil when young.

Amanitas can be mistaken for other species, as well, particularly when immature. On at least one occasion^[7] they have been mistaken for Coprinus comatus. In this case the victim had some experience in identifying mushrooms, but did not take the time to correctly identify these particular mushrooms until after he began to experience symptoms of mushroom poisoning.

Amanitas, two examples of immature Amanitas, one deadly and one edible.

Puffball, an edible puffball mushroom, which closely resembles the immature Amanitas.

The author of "Mushrooms Demystified", David Arora^[8] cautions puffball-hunters to beware of Amanita "eggs", which are Amanitas still entirely encased in their universal veil. Amanitas at this stage are difficult to distinguish from puffballs.

A majority of mushroom poisonings in general are the result of small children, especially toddlers in the "grazing" stage, ingesting mushrooms found in the lawn. While this can happen with any mushroom, Chlorophyllum molybdites is often implicated due to its preference of growing in lawns. C. molybdites causes severe gastrointestinal upset but is not considered deadly poisonous.

A few poisonings are the result of misidentification while attempting to collect hallucinogenic mushrooms for recreational use.^[9] In 1981, one fatality and two hospitalizations occurred following consumption of Galerina autumnalis, mistaken for a Psilocybe species.^[10] Galerina and Psilocybe species are both small, brown, and sticky, and can be found growing together. However, Galerina contains amatoxins, the same poison found in the deadly Amanita species. Another case reports kidney failure following ingestion of Cortinarius orellanus,^[11] a mushroom containing orellanine.

Naturally, accidental ingestion of hallucinogenic species also occurs, but is rarely harmful. Cases of serious toxicity have been reported in small children.^[12] Amanita pantherina, while it contains the same hallucinogens as Amanita muscaria (e.g., ibotenic acid and muscimol), has been more commonly associated with severe gastrointestinal upset than its better-known counterpart.^[8]

Jack-O-Lantern, a poisonous mushroom sometimes mistaken for a chanterelle.

Chanterelle, edible.

Although usually not fatal, Omphalotus olearius, the "Jack-o-lantern mushroom," is another cause of sometimes significant toxicity.^[8] It is sometimes mistaken for a chanterelle. Both are bright orange and fruit at the same time of year, although O. olearius grows on wood and has true gills rather than the veins of a Cantharellus. It contains muscarine, which causes vomiting, diarrhea, salivation, perspiration, and tears. In high doses it can cause respiratory failure. The same toxin occurs in Clitocybe dealbata, which is occasionally mistaken for an oyster mushroom or other edible species.

Toxicities can also occur with collection of morels. Even true morels, if eaten raw, will cause gastrointestinal upset. Therefore morels should always be thoroughly cooked before eating. Verpa bohemica, although referred to as "thimble morels" or "early morels" by some, have caused toxic effects in some individuals. ^[13] "False morels" or Gyromitra spp., are deadly poisonous if eaten raw. They contain a toxin called gyromitrin, which can cause neurotoxicity, gastrointestinal toxicity, and destruction of the blood cells.^[14] The Finns consume the mushroom after parboiling, but it is not known if this renders the mushroom entirely safe, resulting in its being called the "fugu of the Finnish cuisine."

A more unusual toxin is coprine, a disulfiram-like compound which is harmless unless ingested within a few days of ingesting alcohol. It inhibits aldehyde dehydrogenase, an enzyme required for breaking down alcohol. Thus the symptoms of toxicity are similar to being both drunk and "hung over" -- flushing, headache, nausea, palpitations, and in severe cases, trouble breathing. Coprinus species, including Coprinopsis atramentaria, contain coprine. Notably, Coprinus comatus does not^[15], but it is best to avoid mixing alcohol with other members of this genus.

Recently, poisonings have been associated with Amanita smithii. These poisonings may be due to orellanine, but the onset of symptoms occurs in 4 to 11 hours, which is much quicker than the 3 to 20 days normally associated with orellanine^[16].

In some cases, toxicity can occur even with mushrooms that are widely considered edible.

Paxillus involutus is also indigestible when raw, but is eaten in Europe after pickling or parboiling. However, after the death of the German mycologist Dr Julius Schäffer, it was discovered that the mushroom contains a toxin which can stimulate the immune system to attack its own red blood cells. This reaction is rare, but can occur even after safely eating the mushroom for many years.^[17] Similarly, Tricholoma equestre was widely considered edible and good, until it was connected with rare cases of rhabdomyolysis^[18].

In the fall of 2004, thirteen deaths were associated with consumption of Pleurocybella porrigens or "angel's wings."^[19] These mushrooms are generally considered edible. All the victims died of an acute brain disorder, and all had pre-existing kidney disease. The exact cause of the toxicity was not known at this time.

However, mushroom poisoning is not always due to mistaken identity. For example, the highly toxic ergot (Claviceps purpurea), which grows on rye, is sometimes ground up with rye, unnoticed, and later consumed. This can cause devastating, even fatal effects, which is called Ergotism.

Cases of idiosyncratic or "unusual" reactions to fungi can also occur. Some are probably due to allergy, others to some other kind of sensitivity. It is not uncommon for an individual person to experience gastrointestinal upset associated with one particular mushroom species or genus.^[19] Eating small portions when trying a new mushroom may be used as a precaution to identify individual problems with the new species.

[edit] Toxins and their symptoms

See also: Category:Mycotoxins

Poisonous mushrooms contain a variety of different toxins that can differ markedly in toxicity. Symptoms of mushroom poisoning may vary from gastric upset to life-threatening organ failure resulting in death. Serious symptoms do not always occur immediately after eating; often not until the toxin attacks the kidney or liver, sometimes days or weeks later.

The most common consequence of mushroom poisoning is simply gastric upset. Most "poisonous" mushrooms contain gastrointestinal irritants which cause vomiting and diarrhea (sometimes requiring hospitalization), but no long-term damage. However, there are a number of recognized mushroom toxins with specific, and sometimes deadly, effects:

Alpha-amanitin (deadly: causes liver damage 1–3 days after ingestion)–principal toxin in genus Amanita.
Phallotoxin (causes gastrointestinal upset)–also found in poisonous Amanitas
Orellanine (deadly: causes kidney failure 3 weeks after ingestion)–principal toxin in genus Cortinarius.
Muscarine (sometimes deadly: can cause respiratory failure)–found in genus Omphalotus.
Gyromitrin (deadly: causes neurotoxicity, gastrointestinal upset, and destruction of blood cells)–principal toxin in genus Gyromitra.
Coprine (causes illness when consumed with alcohol)–principal toxin in genus Coprinus.
Ibotenic acid and muscimol (hallucinogenic)–principal toxin in A. muscaria, A. pantherina, and A. gemmata.
Psilocybin and psilocin (hallucinogenic)–principal toxin in genus Psilocybe.
Arabitol (causes gastrointestinal irritation in some people).
Bolesatine a toxin found in Boletus satanas
Ergotamine (deadly: affects the vascular system and can lead to loss of limbs and death): An alkaloid found in genus Claviceps.

Symptoms of mushroom poisoning vary depending on the toxins involved.

Alpha-amanitin: For 6–12 hours, there are no symptoms. This is followed by a period of gastrointestinal upset (vomiting and profuse, watery diarrhea). This stage is caused primarily by the phallotoxins^[4] and typically lasts 24 hours. At the end of this second stage is when severe liver damage begins. The damage may continue for another 2–3 days. Kidney damage can also occur. Some patients will require a liver transplant.^[20] Amatoxins are found in some mushrooms in the genus Amanita, but are also found in some species of Galerina and Lepiota.^[8] Overall, mortality is between 10 and 15 percent.^[21] Recently, Silybum marianum or blessed milk thistle has been shown to protect the liver from amanita toxins and promote regrowth of damaged cells ^[22]^[23], including a study in which 60 patients exposed to death cap poison were given 20 mg/kg of milk thistle seeds per day within 48 hours of consuming the deadly mushrooms. None of the patients died.^[24]
Orellanine: This toxin causes no symptoms for 3–20 days after ingestion. Typically around day 11, the process of kidney failure begins^[4], and is usually symptomatic by day 20. These symptoms can include pain in the area of the kidneys, thirst, vomiting, headache, and fatigue. A few species in the very large genus Cortinarius contain this toxin. People who have eaten mushrooms containing orellanine may experience early symptoms as well, because the mushrooms often contain other toxins in addition to orellanine.^[25] A related toxin that causes similar symptoms but within 3–6 days has been isolated from Amanita smithiana and some other related toxic Amanitas^[26].
Muscarine: Muscarine stimulates the muscarinic receptors of the nerves and muscles. Symptoms include sweating, salivation, tears, blurred vision, palpitations, and, in high doses, respiratory failure.^[27] Muscarine is found in mushrooms of the genus Omphalotus, notably the Jack o' Lantern mushrooms. It is also found in A. muscaria, although it is now known that the main effect of this mushroom is caused by ibotenic acid. Muscarine can also be found in some Inocybe species and Clitocybe species, particularly Clitocybe dealbata, and some red-pored Boletes.^[8]
Gyromitrin: Stomach acids convert gyromitrin to monomethylhydrazine (MMH), a compound employed in rocket fuel. It affects multiple body systems. It blocks the important neurotransmitter GABA, leading to stupor, delirium, muscle cramps, loss of coordination^[4], tremors, and/or seizures. It causes severe gastrointestinal irritation, leading to vomiting and diarrhea. In some cases, liver failure has been reported^[4]. It can also cause red blood cells to break down, leading to jaundice, kidney failure, and signs of anemia. It is found in mushrooms of the genus Gyromitra^[14]. A gyromitrin-like compound has also been identified in mushrooms of the genus Verpa.^[13]
Coprine: Coprine is metabolized to a chemical that resembles disulfiram. It inhibits aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH), which generally causes no harm, unless the person has alcohol in their bloodstream while ALDH is inhibited. This can happen if alcohol is ingested shortly before or up to a few days after eating the mushrooms. In that case the alcohol cannot be completely metabolized, and the person will experience flushed skin, vomiting, headache, dizziness, weakness, apprehension, confusion, palpitations, and sometimes trouble breathing. Coprine is found mainly in mushrooms of the genus Coprinus, although similar effects have been noted after ingestion of Clitocybe clavipes.
Ibotenic acid: This organic acid is metabolized to muscimol. The effects of muscimol vary, but nausea and vomiting are common. Confusion, euphoria, or sleepiness are possible. Loss of muscular coordination, sweating, and chills are likely. Some people experience visual distortions, a feeling of strength, or delusions. Symptoms normally appear after 30 minutes to 2 hours and last for several hours. A. muscaria, the "Alice in Wonderland" mushroom, is known for the toxic/hallucinogenic properties caused by ibotenic acid, but A. pantherina and A. gemmata also contain the same compound.^[8] While normally self-limiting, fatalities have been associated with A. pantherina,^[12] and consumption of a large number of any of these mushrooms is likely to be dangerous.
Psilocybin: This compound is converted into psilocin when ingested. Symptoms begin shortly after ingestion. The effects can include euphoria, visual and religious hallucinations, and heightened perception. However, some persons experience fear, agitation, confusion, and schizophrenialike symptoms. All symptoms generally pass after several hours. Some (though not all) members of the genus Psilocybe contain psilocybin, as do some Panaeolus, Copelandia, Conocybe, Gymnopilus, and others. Some of these mushrooms also contain baeocystin, which has effects similar to psilocin.
Arabitol: A sugar alcohol, similar to mannitol, which causes no harm in most people but causes gastrointestinal irritation in some. It is found in small amounts in oyster mushrooms, and considerable amounts in Suillus species and Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca (the "false chanterelle").^[28]

Some mushrooms contain less toxic compounds and, therefore, are not severely poisonous. Poisonings by these mushrooms may respond well to treatment. However, certain types of mushrooms, such as the Amanitas, contain very potent toxins and are very poisonous; so even if symptoms are treated promptly mortality is high. With some toxins, death can occur in a week or a few days. Although a liver or kidney transplant may save some patients with complete organ failure, in many cases there are no organs available. Patients who are hospitalized and given aggressive support therapy almost immediately after ingestion of amanitin-containing mushrooms have a mortality rate of only 10%, whereas those admitted 60 or more hours after ingestion have a 50–90% mortality rate.^[29]

[edit] Poisonous mushrooms

See also: List of deadly fungi

Three of the most lethal mushrooms belong to the genus Amanita: the death cap (A. phalloides) and destroying angels (A. virosa, and A. bisporiga); the fool's mushroom (A. verna) and two are from the genus Cortinarius: the deadly webcap (C. rubellus), and the fool's webcap (C. orellanus). Several species of Galerina, Lepiota, and Conocybe also contain lethal amounts of amatoxins. Deadly species are listed in the List of deadly fungi.

The following species may cause great discomfort, sometimes requiring hospitalization, but are not considered deadly.

Amanita muscaria (fly agaric)–known for its use as an entheogen, and it is now known that the toxins convert to psychoactives upon drying^{[citation needed]}.
Amanita muscaria var. regalis–symptoms generally mild.^{[citation needed]}
Amanita pantherina (panther mushroom)–contains similar toxins as A. muscaria, but is associated with more fatalities than A. muscaria^[12].
Chlorophyllum molybdites (greengills)–causes intense gastrointestinal upset.
Entoloma (pinkgills)–some species are highly poisonous, such as livid entoloma (Entoloma sinuatum), Entoloma rhodopolium, and Entoloma nidorosum. Symptoms of intense gastrointestinal upset appear after 20 minutes to 4 hours, caused by an unidentified gastrointestinal irritant.^[30]
Many Inocybe species such as Inocybe fastigiata and Inocybe geophylla contain muscarine, while Inocybe erubescens is the only one known to have caused death.
Some white Clitocybe species, including C. rivulosa and C. dealbata–contain muscarine^[8].
Tricholoma pardinum, Tricholoma tigrinum (Tiger Tricholoma )–gastrointestinal upset due to an unidentified toxin, begins in 15 minutes to 2 hours and lasts 4 to 6 days.
Tricholoma equestre Man-on-horseback–until recently thought edible and good, can lead to rhabdomyolysis after repeated consumption.
Hypholoma fasciculare/Naematoloma fasciculare (Sulfur tuft)–usually causes gastrointestinal upset^[8] but the toxins fasciculol E and F could lead to paralysis and death^[31]
Paxillus involutus (Brown roll-rim)–once thought edible, but now found to destroy red blood cells with regular or long-term consumption^[17].
Boletus satanas (Devil's bolete), Boletus luridus, Boletus legaliae, Boletus piperatus, Boletus erythropus, Boletus pulcherrimus–gastrointestinal irritation. Of these, only B. pulcherrimus has been implicated in a death. Many books list B. erythropus as edible, but Arora^[8] lists it as "to be avoided."
Hebeloma crustuliniforme (known as Poison pie or Fairy cakes)–causes gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea and vomiting.
Russula emetica (the Sickener)–as its name implies, causes rapid vomiting. Other Russulas with a peppery taste (Russula silvicola, Russula mairei) will likely do the same^[8].
Agaricus hondensis, Agaricus californicus, Agaricus praeclaresquamosus, Agaricus xanthodermus–cause vomiting and diarrhea in most people, although some people seem to be immune.^[8]
Lactarius piperatus, Lactarius torminosus, Lactarius rufus–these and other peppery-tasting Lactarius are pickled and eaten in Scandinavia, but are indigestible or poisonous unless correctly prepared.^[8]
Lactarius vinaceorufescens, Lactarius uvidus–reportedly poisonous. Arora^[8] reports that all yellow- or purple-staining Lactarius are "best avoided."
Ramaria gelatinosa–causes indigestion in many people, although some seem immune.^[8]
Gomphus floccosus (the scaly chanterelle)–causes gastric upset in many people, although some eat it without problems. G. floccosus is related to the chanterelle and sometimes confused with it.^[8]

[edit] Other causes of poisoning

Mushrooms may be rendered poisonous by insecticides or herbicides sprayed on lawns or reserves. At least one author recommends never picking them in non-natural landscapes for this reason.^{[citation needed]}

Also, mushrooms are sometimes contaminated by concentrating pollutants, such as heavy metals or radioactive material (see Chernobyl disaster effects).

Rotten mushrooms may cause food poisoning. Mushrooms which are mushy, bad-smelling, or moldy (even of a choice edible species) may be toxic due to bacterial decay or mold.

Many mushrooms are high in fiber. Excessive consumption of mushrooms may lead to indigestion, which may be diagnosed as mushroom "poisoning."

[edit] Famous poisonings

Roman Emperor Claudius is said to have been murdered by being fed the death cap mushroom. However this story first appeared some two centuries after the events, and it is even debatable whether Claudius was murdered at all.^[32] Pope Clement VII is also rumored to have been murdered this way. However it is similarly debated whether he died from any kind of poisoning at all.
Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI and Tsaritsa Natalia Naryshkina are believed to have died from eating the death cap mushroom.
The composer Johann Schobert died in Paris, along with his wife and one of his children, after insisting that certain poisonous mushrooms were edible.
The best-selling author Nicholas Evans (The Horse Whisperer) was poisoned after eating Cortinarius speciosissimus.^[33]

[edit] References

^ "California Poison Action Line: Mushrooms". http://www.calpoison.org/public/mushrooms.html. Retrieved 2008-02-18.
^ Ian Robert Hall (2003). Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms of the World. Timber Press. p. 103. ISBN 0881925861.
^ ^a ^b "Mushroom Poisoning among Laotian Refugees -- 1981". MMWR (USA: CDC) 31 (21): 287–8. June 4, 1982. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00001107.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-04.

Poisons, ...more comming...

Wed, 21 Oct 2009 22:59:19 +0100

Poison

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This article is about the type of substance. For other uses, see Poison (disambiguation).

EU standard toxic symbol, as defined by Directive 67/548/EEC. skull and crossbones became a standard symbol for poison.

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Toxicology and Poison

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Venom
Toxicant (Toxin)
Acceptable daily intake
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Bioaccumulation
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LD₅₀
Lethal dose
Toxic capacity
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Treatments[show]

Antidote
Gastric lavage
Whole bowel irrigation
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Incidents[show]

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In the context of biology, poisons are substances that can cause disturbances to organisms,^[1] usually by chemical reaction or other activity on the molecular scale, when a sufficient quantity is absorbed by an organism. Legally and in hazardous chemical labelling, poisons are especially toxic substances; less toxic substances are labelled "harmful", "irritant", or not labelled at all.

In medicine (particularly veterinary) and in zoology, a poison is often distinguished from a toxin and a venom. Toxins are poisons produced via some biological function in nature, and venoms are usually defined as biologic toxins that are injected by a bite or sting to cause their effect, while other poisons are generally defined as substances which are absorbed through epithelial linings such as the skin or gut.

Contents
[hide]

1 Terminology
2 Uses of poison
3 Biological poisoning
4 Poisoning management

4.1 Initial management
4.2 Decontamination
4.3 Antidotes
4.4 Enhanced excretion
4.5 Further treatment

5 See also
6 References
7 External links

[edit] Terminology

Some poisons are also toxins, usually referring to naturally produced substances, such as the bacterial proteins that cause tetanus and botulism. A distinction between the two terms is not always observed, even among scientists.

Animal toxins that are delivered subcutaneously (e.g. by sting or bite) are also called venom. In normal usage, a poisonous organism is one that is harmful to consume, but a venomous organism uses poison to defend itself while still alive. A single organism can be both venomous and poisonous.

The derivative forms "toxic" and "poisonous" are synonymous.

Within chemistry and physics, a poison is a substance that obstructs or inhibits a reaction, for example by binding to a catalyst. For an example, see nuclear poison.

Paracelsus, the father of toxicology, once wrote: "Everything is poison, there is poison in everything. Only the dose makes a thing not a poison." The phrase "poison" is often used colloquially to describe any harmful substance, particularly corrosive substances, carcinogens, mutagens, teratogens and harmful pollutants, and to exaggerate the dangers of chemicals. The legal definition of "poison" is stricter. A medical condition of poisoning can also be caused by substances that are not legally required to carry the label "poison".

[edit] Uses of poison

See also: History of poison

"Poisoning of Queen Bona" by Jan Matejko.

Throughout human history, intentional application of poison has been used as a method of assassination, murder, suicide, and execution.^[2]^[3] As a method of execution, poison has been ingested, as the ancient Athenians did (see Socrates), inhaled, as with carbon monoxide or hydrogen cyanide (see gas chamber), or injected (see lethal injection). Many languages describe lethal injection with their corresponding words for "poison shot". Poison's lethal effect can be combined with its allegedly magical powers; an example is the Chinese gu poison. Poison was also employed in gunpowder warfare. For example, the 14th century Chinese text of the Huo Long Jing written by Jiao Yu outlined the use of a poisonous gunpowder mixture to fill cast iron grenade bombs.^[4]

On the whole, however, poisons are usually not used for their toxicity, but may be used for their other properties. The property of toxicity itself has limited non-lethal applications: mainly for controlling pests and weeds, cleaning and maintenance, and for preserving building materials and food stuffs. Where possible, specific agents which are less poisonous to humans have come to be preferred, but exceptions such as phosphine continue in use.

Most poisonous materials still in use are used for their chemical or physical properties other than being poisonous. Many over-the-counter medications, such as aspirin and Tylenol, are quite toxic if ingested in sufficiently large quantities. Alcohol is also toxic if too much is ingested in a short enough time. In laboratory environments, where specific chemical properties are often required, the most effective, easiest, safest, or cheapest option for use in a chemical synthesis may be a poisonous material. If a toxic substance possesses these properties more exactly than a non-toxic one, the toxic substance is superior. Chromic acid is an example of such a "simple to use" reagent, but reactivity, in particular, is important. Hydrogen fluoride (HF), for example, is both poisonous and extremely corrosive. However, it has a high affinity (free energy) for silicon, which is exploited by using HF to etch glass or to manufacture silicon semiconductor chips.

On the other hand, certain medical treatments actually make deliberate use of the toxicity of certain substances. Antibiotics (originally harvested from organisms but now artificially produced in laboratories) are highly disruptive to the biochemistry of micro-organisms while having almost no direct effect upon humans. Similarly, the drugs used in chemotherapy are quite toxic; the reason chemotheraputic drugs have far more severe side effects than antibiotics is that their toxicity is not as narrowly tailored. Their benefit arises from the fact that they are—hopefully—more toxic to cancerous cells than normal ones. Such substances could be classified as poisons under the categories defined above, as they are generally artificial in nature, but are not generally discussed as such.

[edit] Biological poisoning

Acute poisoning is exposure to a poison on one occasion or during a short period of time. Symptoms develop in close relation to the exposure. Absorption of a poison is necessary for systemic poisoning. In contrast, substances that destroy tissue but do not absorb, such as lye, are classified as corrosives rather than poisons.

Chronic poisoning is long-term repeated or continuous exposure to a poison where symptoms do not occur immediately or after each exposure. The patient gradually becomes ill, or becomes ill after a long latent period. Chronic poisoning most commonly occurs following exposure to poisons that bioaccumulate such as mercury and lead.

Contact or absorption of poisons can cause rapid death or impairment. Agents that act on the nervous system can paralyze in seconds or less, and include both biologically derived neurotoxins and so-called nerve gases, which may be synthesized for warfare or industry.

Inhaled or ingested cyanide, used as a method of execution in gas chambers, almost instantly starves the body of energy by inhibiting the enzymes in mitochondria that make ATP. Intravenous injection of an unnaturally high concentration of potassium chloride, such as in the execution of prisoners in parts of the United States, quickly stops the heart by eliminating the cell potential necessary for muscle contraction.

Most biocides, including pesticides, are created to act as poisons to target organisms, although acute or less observable chronic poisoning can also occur in non-target organism, including the humans who apply the biocides and other beneficial organisms. For example, the herbicide 2,4-D imitates the action of a plant hormone, to the effect that the lethal toxicity is specific to plants. Indeed, 2,4-D is not a poison, but classified as "harmful" (EU).

Many substances regarded as poisons are toxic only indirectly, by toxication. An example is "wood alcohol" or methanol, which is not poisonous itself, but is chemically converted to toxic formaldehyde and formic acid in the liver. Many drug molecules are made toxic in the liver, and the genetic variability of certain liver enzymes makes the toxicity of many compounds differ between individuals.

The study of the symptoms, mechanisms, treatment and diagnosis of biological poisoning is known as toxicology.

Exposure to radioactive substances can produce radiation poisoning, an unrelated phenomenon.

[edit] Poisoning management

Poison Control Centers (reachable at 1-800-222-1222 in the US worldwide) provide immediate, free, and expert treatment advice and assistance over the telephone in case of suspected exposure to poisons or toxic substances.

[edit] Initial management

Initial management for all poisonings includes ensuring adequate cardiopulmonary function and providing treatment for any symptoms such as seizures, shock, and pain.

[edit] Decontamination

If the toxin was recently ingested, absorption of the substance may be able to be decreased through gastric decontamination. This may be achieved using activated charcoal, gastric lavage, whole bowel irrigation, or nasogastric aspiration. Routine use of emetics (syrup of Ipecac), cathartics or laxatives are no longer recommended.

Activated charcoal is the treatment of choice to prevent absorption of the poison. It is usually administered when the patient is in the emergency room or by a trained emergency healthcare provider such as a Paramedic or EMT. However, charcoal is ineffective against metals such as sodium, potassium, and lithium, and alcohols and glycols; it is also not recommended for ingestion of corrosive chemicals such as acids and alkalis.^[5]
Whole bowel irrigation cleanses the bowel, this is achieved by giving the patient large amounts of a polyethylene glycol solution. The osmotically balanced polyethylene glycol solution is not absorbed into the body, having the effect of flushing out the entire gastrointestinal tract. Its major uses are following ingestion of sustained release drugs, toxins that are not absorbed by activated charcoal (i.e. lithium, iron), and for the removal of ingested packets of drugs (body packing/smuggling).^[6]
Gastric lavage, commonly known as a stomach pump, is the insertion of a tube into the stomach, followed by administration of water or saline down the tube. The liquid is then removed along with the contents of the stomach. Lavage has been used for many years as a common treatment for poisoned patients. However, a recent review of the procedure in poisonings suggests no benefit.^[7] It is still sometimes used if it can be performed within 1 h of ingestion and the exposure is potentially life threatening.
Nasogastric aspiration involves the placement of a tube via the nose down into the stomach, the stomach contents are then removed via suction. This procedure is mainly used for liquid ingestions where activated charcoal is ineffective, e.g. ethylene glycol poisoning.
Emesis (i.e. induced by ipecac) is no longer recommended in poisoning situations.^[8]
Cathartics were postulated to decrease absorption by increasing the expulsion of the poison from the gastrointestinal tract. There are two types of cathartics used in poisoned patients; saline cathartics (sodium sulfate, magnesium citrate, magnesium sulfate) and saccharide cathartics (sorbitol). They do not appear to improve patient outcome and are no longer recommended.^[9]

[edit] Antidotes

Some poisons have specific antidotes:

Poison/Drug Antidote

paracetamol (acetaminophen) N-acetylcysteine

vitamin K anticoagulants, e.g. warfarin vitamin K

opioids naloxone

iron (and other heavy metals) desferrioxamine, Deferasirox or Deferiprone

benzodiazepines flumazenil

ethylene glycol ethanol or fomepizole, and thiamine

methanol ethanol or fomepizole, and folinic acid

cyanide amyl nitrite, sodium nitrite and sodium thiosulfate

Organophosphates Atropine and Pralidoxime

Magnesium Calcium Gluconate

Calcium Channel Blockers (Verapamil, Diltiazem) Calcium Gluconate

Beta-Blockers (Propranolol, Sotalol) Calcium Gluconate and/or Glucagon

Isoniazid Pyridoxine

Atropine Physostigmine

Thallium Prussian Blue

[edit] Enhanced excretion

In some situations elimination of the poison can be enhanced using diuresis, hemodialysis, hemoperfusion, hyperbaric medicine, peritoneal dialysis, or exchange transfusion.

[edit] Further treatment

In the majority of poisonings the mainstay of management is providing supportive care for the patient, i.e. treating the symptoms rather than the poison.

[edit] See also

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR)
Antidote
Biosecurity
Food taster
LD₅₀
Lethal injection
List of extremely hazardous substances
List of fictional toxins
List of poisonings
List of poisonous plants
List of types of poison
Toxics use reduction
Venom
Mr. Yuk

[edit] References

^ poison at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
^ Kautilya suggests employing means such as seduction, secret use of weapons, poison etc. S.D. Chamola, Kautilya Arthshastra and the Science of Management: Relevance for the Contemporary Society, p. 40. ISBN 8178711265.
^ Kautilya urged detailed precautions against assassination—tasters for food, elaborate ways to detect poison. "Moderate Machiavelli? Contrasting The Prince with the Arthashastra of Kautilya". Critical Horizons, vol. 3, no. 2 (September 2002). Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1440-9917 (Print) 1568-5160 (Online). DOI: 10.1163/156851602760586671.
^ Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 7. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Page 180.
^ Chyka PA, Seger D, Krenzelok EP, Vale JA (2005). "Position paper: Single-dose activated charcoal". Clin Toxicol (Phila) 43 (2): 61–87. PMID 15822758.
^ "Position paper: whole bowel irrigation". J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 42 (6): 843–54. 2004. doi:10.1081/CLT-200035932. PMID 15533024.
^ Vale JA, Kulig K; American Academy of Clinical Toxicology; European Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Toxicologists. (2004). "Position paper: gastric lavage". J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 42 (7): 933–43. doi:10.1081/CLT-200045006. PMID 15641639.
^ American Academy of Clinical Toxicology; European Association of Poisons Centres Clinical Toxicologists (2004). "Position paper: Ipecac syrup". J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 42 (2): 133–43. doi:10.1081/CLT-120037421. PMID 15214617.
^ Toxicology, American Academy of Clinical (2004). "Position paper: cathartics". J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 42 (3): 243–53. doi:10.1081/CLT-120039801. PMID 15362590.

[edit] External links

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
American Association of Poison Control Centers
American College of Medical Toxicology
ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center
Clinical Toxicology Teaching Wiki
Find Your Local Poison Control Centre Here (Worldwide)
Poison Prevention and Education Website

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Fluoride · Chlorine

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Organic

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Pesticides: Organophosphates

Nitrogen

Toxins and Venoms...more comming...

Wed, 21 Oct 2009 22:57:17 +0100

Venom

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This article is missing citations or needs footnotes. Please help add inline citations to guard against copyright violations and factual inaccuracies. (February 2008)

This article is about about the class of biotoxins. For other uses, see Venom (disambiguation).

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v • d • e

Venom is any of a variety of toxins^[1] used by certain types of animals. Generally, venom is injected by such means as a bite or a sting.^[2]

Contents
[hide]

1 The distinction between venom and poison
2 Diversity

2.1 Arthropods and other invertebrates
2.2 Fish
2.3 Snakes and other reptiles
2.4 Mammals

3 See also
4 References
5 Bibliography

[edit] The distinction between venom and poison

There is a difference between organisms that are venomous and those that are poisonous,^[3] two commonly confused terms applied to plant and animal life.

Venomous, as stated above, refers to animals that deliver (often, inject) venom into their prey when hunting or as a defense mechanism.
Poisonous, on the other hand, describes plants or animals that are harmful when consumed or touched.^[4] A poison tends to be distributed over a large part of the body of the organism producing it, while venom is typically produced in organs specialized for the purpose.^[5] One species of bird, the hooded pitohui, although not venomous, is poisonous, secreting a neurotoxin onto its skin and feathers.

The slow loris, a primate, blurs the boundary between poisonous and venomous. From patches on the inside of its elbows it secretes a toxin, which it is believed to smear on its young to prevent them from being eaten; however, it will also lick these patches, giving it a venomous bite.

[edit] Diversity

Wasp sting, with droplet of venom

[edit] Arthropods and other invertebrates

Among animals using venom are spiders and centipedes, which also inject venom through fangs; scorpions and stinging insects, which inject venom with a sting (which, in insects such as bees and wasps, is a modified egg-laying device – the ovipositor). Many caterpillars have defensive venom glands associated with specialized bristles on the body, known as urticating hairs, and can be lethal to humans (e.g., that of the Lonomia moth).

Because they are tasked to defend their hives and food stores, bees synthesize and employ an acidic venom (apitoxin) to cause pain in those that they sting, whereas wasps use a chemically different venom designed to paralyze prey, so it can be stored alive in the food chambers of their young. The use of venom is much more widespread than just these examples, of course. Other insects, such as true bugs [1] and many ants, also produce venom.

There are many other venomous invertebrates, including jellyfish and cone snails. The box jellyfish is widely considered one of the most dangerous creatures in the world.

[edit] Fish

Main article: Venomous fish

Venom can also be found in some fish, such as the cartilaginous fishes – stingrays, sharks, and chimaeras – and the teleost fishes including monognathus eels, catfishes, stonefishes and waspfishes, scorpionfishes and lionfishes, gurnard perches, rabbitfishes, surgeonfishes, scats, stargazers, weever.

[edit] Snakes and other reptiles

Main article: Snake venom

The animals most widely known to use venom are snakes, some species of which inject venom into their prey through hollow fangs.

Snake venom is produced by glands below the eye and delivered to the victim through tubular or channeled fangs. Snake venoms contain a variety of peptide toxins (Proteases), which hydrolyze protein peptide bonds, and nucleases, which hydrolize the phosphodiester bonds of DNA. Snakes use their venom principally for hunting, though the threat of being bitten serves also as a defense. Snake bites cause a variety of symptoms including pain, swelling, tissue damage, low blood pressure, convulsions, and hemorrhaging (varying by species of snake).

Doctors treat victims of a venomous bite with antivenom, which is created by dosing an animal such as a sheep, horse, goat, or rabbit with a small amount of the targeted venom. The immune system of the subject animal responds to the dose, producing antibodies to the venom's active molecule; the antibodies can then be harvested from the animal's blood and applied to treat envenomation in others. This treatment can be used effectively only a limited number of times for a given person, however, as that person will ultimately develop antibodies to neutralize the foreign animal antibodies injected into them (anti-antibody antibodies). Even if that person does not suffer a serious allergic reaction to the antivenom, his own immune system can destroy the antivenin before the antivenin can destroy the venom. Though most people never require even one treatment of antivenin in their lifetime, let alone several, people who work with snakes or other venomous animals may.

Aristolochia rugosa and Aristolochia trilobata, or "Dutchman's Pipe," are recorded in a list of plants used worldwide and in the West Indies, South and Central America against snakebites and scorpion stings. Aristolochic acid inhibits inflammation induced by immune complexes, and nonimmunological agents (carrageenan or croton oil).^{[citation needed]} Aristolochic acid inhibits the activity of snake venom phospholipase (PLA2) by forming a 1:1 complex with the enzyme. Since phospholipase enzymes play a significant part in the cascade leading to the inflammatory and pain response, their inhibition could lead to relief of problems from scorpion envenomation.

Venom is also found in a few reptiles besides snakes, such as the gila monster, Mexican beaded lizard and certain members of the genus Varanus, such as the perentie and Komodo dragon.

[edit] Mammals

Main article: Venomous mammals

Some mammals are also venomous, including solenodons, shrews, the slow loris, and the male platypus.

[edit] See also

Envenomation
Schmidt Sting Pain Index
Big Four (Indian snakes)

[edit] References

^ venom at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
^ "venom - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary". http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/venom. Retrieved 2008-12-13.
^ "Are Spiders Poisonous? | Horticulture and Home Pest News". http://www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/hortnews/2008/12-10/spiderbites.html. Retrieved 2008-12-13.
^ E.g., Kenneth G. Wilson, The Columbia Guide to Standard American English. 1993.
^ Zoltan Takacs, The Biology of Venomous Animals. Session 1. Columbia University, 2001.

[edit] Bibliography

Smith WL, Wheeler WC (2006). "Venom evolution widespread in fishes: a phylogenetic road map for the bioprospecting of piscine venoms". J. Hered. 97 (3): 206–17. doi:10.1093/jhered/esj034. PMID 16740627. http://jhered.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16740627.

Lans C, Harper T, Georges K, Bridgewater E (2001). "Medicinal and ethnoveterinary remedies of hunters in Trinidad". BMC Complement Altern Med 1: 10. PMID 11737880. PMC: 60997. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6882/1/10.

[hide]

v • d • e
Poisonings, toxicities, and overdoses (T36-T65, 960-989) (history)

Inorganic

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cardiovascular system

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Vitamin A · Vitamin D · Vitamin E

Biological
(including venom,
toxin,
food poisoning)

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Shellfish poisoning (Paralytic shellfish poisoning, Diarrheal shellfish poisoning, Amnesic shellfish poisoning, Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning) · Ciguatera · Ichthyoallyeinotoxism · Scombroid · Haff disease

Other vertebrates

snake venom (Alpha-Bungarotoxin, Ancrod, Batroxobin)
amphibian venom: Batrachotoxin · Bombesin · Bufotenin · Physalaemin
birds/quail: Coturnism

Arthropods

arthropod venom: Bee sting/bee venom (Apamin, Melittin) · spider venom (Latrotoxin/Latrodectism) · scorpion venom (Charybdotoxin)
Tick paralysis

Poisonous plants/
derivatives

Mushroom poisoning · Lathyrism · Ergotism · Strychnine poisoning · Cinchonism · Locoism (Pea struck)

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venom"

Categories: Toxins

Edible Berries...more comming...

Wed, 21 Oct 2009 22:55:04 +0100

Berry

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Jump to: navigation, search

For other uses, see Berry (disambiguation).

Four fruits that are true berries (size not to scale). Clockwise from right:
Concord grapes, persimmon, red gooseberries, red currants (top)

The botanical definition of a berry is a simple fruit produced from a single ovary, such as a grape or a tomato. The berry is the most common type of fleshy fruit in which the entire ovary wall ripens into an edible pericarp. The flowers of these plants have a superior ovary formed by the fusion of two or more carpels. The seeds are embedded in the flesh of the ovary.

In everyday English, a berry is a term for any small edible fruit. These 'berries' are usually juicy, round or semi-oblong, brightly coloured, sweet or sour, and don't have a stone or pit, although many seeds may be present.

Many berries, such as the tomato are edible, but others in the same family, such as the fruits of the deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna) and the fruits of the potato (Solanum tuberosum) are poisonous to humans. A plant that bears berries is said to be bacciferous.

Contents
[hide]

1 Types of berries

1.1 True berries
1.2 Modified berries, juicy berries
1.3 Not a botanical berry

1.3.1 Drupes
1.3.2 Epigynous fruits
1.3.3 Compound fruits

2 Color and medical benefits
3 See also
4 Notes
5 External links

[edit] Types of berries

[edit] True berries

Several types of common "berries", none of which is a berry by botanical definition:
The blueberry is a false berry, blackberries are aggregate fruit, and strawberries are accessory fruit.

In botanical language, a berry or true berry is a simple fruit having seeds and pulp produced from a single ovary. The true berry is the most common type of fleshy fruit in which the entire ovary wall ripens into an edible pericarp. The flowers of these plants had a superior ovary and one or more carpels within a thin covering and fleshy interiors. The seeds are embedded in the common flesh of the ovary.

Examples of true berries include

Grape, Vitis vinifera
Tomato, Lycopersicon esculentum and other species of the family Solanaceae, many of which are commercial importance, such as Capsicum, and aubergine (Solanum melongena) and Wolfberry or Goji berries (Lycium barbarum, Lycium spp.; Solanaceae).
Barberry (Berberis; Berberidaceae)
Currant (Ribes spp.; Grossulariaceae), red, black, and white types
Elderberry (Sambucus niger; Caprifoliaceae)
Gooseberry (Ribes spp.; Grossulariaceae)
Honeysuckle: the berries of some species (called honeyberries) are edible, others are poisonous (Lonicera spp.; Caprifoliaceae)

Mayapple (Podophyllum spp.; Berberidaceae)
Nannyberry or sheepberry (Viburnum spp.; Caprifoliaceae)
Oregon-grape (Mahonia aquifolium; Berberidaceae)
Sea-buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides; Elaeagnaceae)

[edit] Modified berries, juicy berries

The fruit of citrus, such as the orange, kumquat and lemon, is a modified berry called a hesperidium.

[edit] Not a botanical berry

Many "berries" are not actual berries by the scientific definition, but fall into one of these categories:

[edit] Drupes

Drupes are fruits produced from a single-seeded ovary or achene.

Hackberry (Celtis spp.; Cannabaceae)
Açaí (Euterpe), a palm fruit native to the Amazon region

[edit] Epigynous fruits

Epigynous fruits are berry-like fruits formed from inferior ovaries, in which the receptacle is included. Notable examples are the fruits of the Ericaceae, including blueberry, huckleberry and cranberry.

Bearberry (Arctostaphylos spp.), Crowberry (Empetrum spp.) and Cranberry
Lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea)
Strawberry Tree (Arbutus unedo), not to be confused with the actual strawberry (Fragaria)
Sea Grape (Coccoloba uvifera; Polygonaceae)
The fruit of cucumbers, melons and their relatives are modified berries called "pepoes".

[edit] Compound fruits

Compound fruits are groups or aggregates of multiple individual fruits, and include:

Aggregate fruits are multiple fruits with seeds from different ovaries of a single flower, such as blackberry, raspberry, bayberry, and boysenberry
Multiple fruit, are the fruits of separate flowers, packed closely together. The mulberry, for example, is essentially like a cluster of grapes, but tiny and compressed into one "berry"^[1].
Other accessory fruit, where the edible part is not generated by the ovary, such as the strawberry for which the seed-like achenes are actually the "fruit" derived from the ovary.

Raspberries are not true berries, but aggregate fruits composed of many drupes

Blackberry, of which there are many species and hybrids, such as dewberry, boysenberry, olallieberry, and tayberry (genus Rubus)
Cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus)
Loganberry (Rubus loganobaccus)
Raspberry, Rubus idaeus and some other species of Rubus
Salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis)
Thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus)
Wineberry (Rubus phoenicolasius)

[edit] Color and medical benefits

By contrasting in color with their background, berries are more attractive to animals that eat them, aiding in the dispersal of the plant's seeds.

Berry colors are due to natural plant pigments. Many are polyphenols such as the flavonoids, anthocyanins, and tannins localized mainly in berry skins and seeds. Berry pigments are usually antioxidants and thus have oxygen radical absorbance capacity ("ORAC") that is high among plant foods.^[2] Together with good nutrient content, ORAC distinguishes several berries within a new category of functional foods called "superfruits" and is identified by DataMonitor as one of the top 10 food categories for growth in 2008^[3].

Botanical parlance

True berry Pepo Hesperidium False berry (Epigynous) Aggregate fruit Multiple fruit Pome Drupe Other accessory fruit

Common parlance Berry Blackcurrant, Redcurrant, Gooseberry Cranberry, Blueberry Blackberry, Raspberry, Boysenberry Mulberry Strawberry

Not a berry Tomato, Eggplant, Guava, Lucuma, Chili pepper, Pomegranate, Kiwifruit, Grape Pumpkin, Gourd, Cucumber, Melon Orange, Lemon, Lime, Grapefruit Banana Hedge apple Pineapple, Fig Apple, Quince, Pear, Rose hip Peach, Cherry, Date, Mango, Nectarine, Plum, Apricot Green bean, Sunflower seed

Alaska wild "berries" from the Innoko National Wildlife Refuge.

[edit] See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Berries

List of fruits
Epigynous berry
Accessory fruit
Aggregate fruit
Multiple fruit
Drupe

[edit] Notes

^ [1]
^ Wu X, Beecher GR, Holden JM, Haytowitz DB, Gebhardt SE, Prior RL (2004-06-16). Lipophilic and hydrophilic antioxidant capacities of common foods in the United States. J Agric Food Chem 2004 Jun 16;52(12):4026-37.. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15186133&query_hl=2&itool=pubmed_DocSum. Retrieved 2007-07-31.
^ Fresh, super and organic top trends for 2008, FoodNavigator.com-USA, November 2007

[edit] External links

The National Council for the Conservation of Plants and Gardens – Description of berries
Encarta.msn.com – Differentiation between true berries, pepos, and hesperidia
United States National Berry Crops Initiative
Berry Health Benefits Network – Scientists working on the health properties of berries

[hide]

v • d • e
Types of fruits

Morphology
Accessory fruit · Achene · Berry · False berry · Hesperidium · Drupe · Pome · Compound fruit · Multiple fruit · Samara

Function
Diaspore · Drift fruit

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berry"

Categories: Berries | Plant morphology

advice

Tea, in preperation too!!!

TeaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search

Contents

[edit] Traditional Chinese Tea Cultivation and Technologies

[edit] Processing and classification

[edit] Blending and additives

[edit] Content

[edit] Origin and history

[edit] Origin myths

[edit] China

[edit] Japan

[edit] Korea

[edit] Taiwan

[edit] Thailand

[edit] Vietnam

Contents

[edit] General method of preparation

[edit] Examples of tinctures

[edit] See also

[edit] References

[edit] External links

Vitamins...

Vitamin

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Contents

[edit] History

[edit] In humans

[edit] List of vitamins

[edit] In nutrition and diseases

[edit] Deficiencies

[edit] Side effects and overdose

[edit] Supplements

[edit] Governmental regulation of vitamin supplements

[edit] Names in current and previous nomenclatures

[edit] See also

[edit] References

Minerals...more to come!

Mineral

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Contents

[edit] Mineral definition and classification

[edit] Differences between minerals and rocks

[edit] Mineral composition of rocks

[edit] Physical properties of minerals

[edit] Chemical properties of minerals

[edit] Silicate class

[edit] Carbonate class

[edit] Sulfate class

[edit] Halide class

[edit] Oxide class

[edit] Sulfide class

[edit] Phosphate class

[edit] Element class

[edit] Organic class

[edit] See also

[edit] References

[edit] External links

Spices, ...more to come...

Spice

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Contents

[edit] Classification and types

[edit] Early history

[edit] Middle Ages

[edit] Early modern period

[edit] Spice racks

[edit] Common spice mixtures

[edit] Production

[edit] Standardization

[edit] References

[edit] Further reading

[edit] Sources

[edit] See also

Contents

[edit] Uses

[edit] Culinary herbs

[edit] Medicinal herbs

[edit] Sacred herbs

[edit] Pest control

Tea
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search